<p>The Flying Horse Carousel is a historic carousel in Watch Hill, the principal summer resort area of the town of Westerly, Rhode Island, United States. It is one of two in the state designated as National Historic Landmarks, along with the Crescent Park Looff Carousel in East Providence. It is the oldest operating carousel in the United States in which the horses are suspended from chains.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The carousel is believed to have been built around 1876 by the Charles W. Dare Company of New York. This is about the same time attributed to the construction of the Flying Horses Carousel in Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts, although both dates are based on inferences and lack certainty. It consists of twenty horses in two sizes which are suspended by chains from sweeps radiating out from the center of the carousel under its canopy. The bodies of the horses are believed to have been carved from single blocks of wood, with the legs carved separately and attached. The horses still have their original agate eyes; other trappings have been replaced, including manes and reins. The chains holding the horses are attached to the rump and to an iron bar added to the pommel, apparently a modification. When the carousel rotates, centrifugal force drives the horses outward, giving rise to the name "flying horses." The horses in the Oak Bluffs carousel are fixed to columns between spreader panels above and a platform below.</p><br>
<p>The carousel is located in a wood-frame pavilion at the end of Bay Street in Watch Hill. It is a ten-sided structure with a hipped roof, and appears to date to the early 20th century. A low picket fence surrounds the structure to prevent access to the space in which the horses fly when the carousel is in operation. The floor of the pavilion is now concrete; it was originally sand.</p><br>
<p>Children younger than 12 years old may ride. In the middle of the ride, a device holding metal rings is lowered for riders to grab as they pass. The last ring is brass, granting the "winner" a free ride token.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The carousel was originally part of a traveling carnival until 1879, when the carnival was forced to abandon it in Watch Hill. It was powered by a horse at that time, with music provided by a hand-cranked organ. Power was provided by water in 1897, and the carousel was electrified about 1914. It was extensively damaged by the New England Hurricane of 1938 which devastated Watch Hill. However, its horses were recovered from the sand dunes and the carousel was restored to operation; three chariots were lost which were not replaced. The carousel and its buildings have been the subject of repairs and restorations in the following decades. It is maintained by the non-profit Watch Hill Improvement Society.</p><br>
<p>The carousel was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987. It operates annually from June to Labor Day.</p><br>
<p>Nassau Hall  is the oldest building at Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, New Jersey, United States. At the time it was built in 1756, Nassau Hall was the largest building in colonial New Jersey and the largest academic building in all the American colonies. The University, then known as the College of New Jersey, held classes for one year in Elizabeth and nine years in Newark before the Hall was completed in 1756. Designed originally by Robert Smith, the building was subsequently remodeled by notable American architects Benjamin Latrobe and John Notman. In the early years of Princeton University, Nassau Hall accommodated classrooms, a library, a chapel, and residential space for students and faculty. It housed the university&#39;s first Department of Psychology, for example.</p><br>
<p>During the events of the American Revolutionary War, Nassau Hall was possessed by both British and American forces and suffered considerable damage, especially during the Battle of Princeton on January 3, 1777. From July to October 1783, Princeton was the capital of the early United States and Nassau Hall hosted the entire American government. The Congress of the Confederation met in the building&#39;s library on the second floor. According to Princeton University, "Here Congress congratulated George Washington on his successful termination of the war, received the news of the signing of the definitive treaty of peace with Great Britain, and welcomed the first foreign minister&mdash;from the Netherlands&mdash;accredited to the United States."</p><br>
<p>At present, Nassau Hall houses Princeton Universitys administrative offices, including that of the universitys president. Old Nassau refers affectionately to the building and serves as a metonym for the university as a whole. The USA Department of the Interior designated Nassau Hall a National Historic Landmark in 1960, "signifying its importance in the Revolutionary War and in the history of the United States."</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>When the building was constructed in 1754, the college&#39;s board wanted to name it after Jonathan Belcher, the in 1747 chosen royal governor of New Jersey, but he graciously declined, preferring it to be dedicated "to the immortal memory of the glorious King William III," who hailed from the Dutch House of Orange-Nassau. As a result, the building is known as Nassau Hall.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The New Jersey Legislature met for the first time in Nassau Hall on August 27, 1776.</p><br>
<p>The British Redcoats seized control of Nassau Hall in 1776, and American soldiers were forced to fire upon their own building in the Battle of Princeton on January 3, 1777. Three cannonballs were fired, but only two made contact. One glanced off the south side of the building; the damage can still be seen today. Another cannonball flew through a window in the Faculty Room and "decapitated" King George&#39;s portrait. The cannonball was said to have come from a gun in the artillery company commanded by Alexander Hamilton, who had been rejected by Princeton when he first came to the colonies. The result of the battle was a decisive Patriot victory, and Nassau Hall was retaken by the Americans.</p><br>
<p>The Congress of the Confederation convened in Nassau Hall for a little more than four months (from June 30, 1783, to November 4, 1783). The normal location in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania had to be vacated due to a mutiny by Continental Army soldiers.</p><br>
<p>Starting in 1869 each graduation class adds a new sprig of ivy to grow up the walls of the building.</p><br>
<p>The first USA commemorative postage stamp ever printed on colored paper honored Nassau Hall on its bicentennial. It depicted a front view of Nassau Hall. It was denominated at the then first class rate of 3 cents and was on orange paper. It was first issued at Princeton, N.J. on September 22, 1956.</p><br>
<h2>Princeton's alma mater</h2><br>
<p>The song Old Nassau was adopted as Princeton Universitys alma mater in 1859. The lyrics were written by Harlan Page Peck, a member of Princetons class of 1862, and first published in the March 1859 issue of Nassau Literary Magazine. The music, originally to be set to the tune of Auld Lang Syne, proved unworkable, and Karl A. Langlotz, a professor of music at Princeton who had studied composition under Franz Liszt, wrote a new melody for the songs lyrics. According to Leitchs A Princeton Companion, Langlotz "wrote the music for Old Nassau on the porch of his house at 160 Mercer Street one fine spring afternoon."</p><br>
<p>Pecks lyrics have been altered significantly over the years, and several verses of Pecks original text have been omitted. Years after female students began attending Princeton after the adoption of a coeducational program in 1969, the song&#39;s lyrics were altered to become gender neutral.</p><br>
<p>The original lyrics of the song&#39;s first verse and refrain are as follows:</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>As described in 1760 in the New American Magazine, "The simple interior design is shown in the plan, where a central corridor provided communication with the students&#39; chambers and recitation rooms, the entrances, and the common prayer hall; and on the second floor, with the library over the central north entrance. The prayer hall was two stories high, measured 32 by 40 feet, and had a balcony at the north end which could be reached from the second-story entry. Partially below ground level, though dimly lighted by windows, was the cellar, which served as kitchen, dining area (beneath the prayer hall), and storeroom. In all there were probably forty rooms for the students, not including those added later in the cellar when a moat was dug to allow additional light and air into that dungeon."</p><br>
<p>On March 6, 1802, a fire devastated the interior of the Hall, leaving only the exterior walls standing and destroying nearly all contents including 2,900 out of the library&#39;s 3,000 books. Benjamin H. Latrobe, the first architect professionally trained in the United States and known for his work in the Federal style, oversaw the reconstruction and refused his share of the $42,000 that had been raised for the effort.Bennicoff, Tad. "A Brief History of Nassau Hall." Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library: FAQ A Brief History of Nassau Hall. Princeton University Library, 2003. Web. 14 Oct. 2012.</p><br>
<p>. "The horizontal lintels over the three entrances at the front of the building were replaced with triangular pediments, and the circular window in the central pediment rising from the eves (sic) was replaced with a fanlight."</p><br>
<p>The Hall was gutted by fire once again in March 1855. Reconstruction was carried out by John Notman of Philadelphia in his characteristic Italian Renaissance style, adding an often-criticized cupola and towers along with engineering improvements. Many of his architectural flourishes were removed in later renovations.</p><br>
<p>The Troll Wall  is part of the mountain massif Trolltindene  in the Romsdalen valley, near Åndalsnes and Molde, on the Norwegian west coast. Trollveggen is part of the Reinheimen National Park in the municipality of Rauma in Møre og Romsdal county. The Troll Wall is the tallest vertical rock face in Europe, about 1,100 m from its base to the summit of its highest point. At its steepest, the summit ridge overhangs the base of the wall by nearly 50 m. The Rauma River and the European Route E136 runs just to the east of the wall.</p><br>
<p>The rock is gneiss, formed into a broken rock wall of huge corners, concave roofs, and crack systems, topped with a series of spires and pinnacles on the summit rim. The rock is generally loose, and rockfall is the norm on this north-facing big wall. There was a series of large rockfalls on the wall in September 1998, radically changing the character of several climbing routes.</p><br>
<p>The Troll Wall has been a prestigious goal for climbers and BASE jumpers alike. Carl Boenish, the "father" of BASE jumping, was killed on the Troll Wall in 1984 shortly after setting the world record for the highest BASE jump in history. BASE jumping from Troll Wall has been illegal since 1986.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<p>The Troll Wall was first climbed in 1965 by a Norwegian team. The Norwegian team, consisting of Ole Daniel Enersen, Leif Norman Patterson, Odd Eliassen, and Jon Teigland, finished one day ahead of the British climbers Tony Howard, John Amatt and Bill Tweedale, who established the most popular climbing route on the wall, the Rimmon Route. As of 2003, this route was reported unclimbable because a rockfall in September 1998 destroyed five of its pitches.</p><br>
<p>The wall saw its first winter ascent in March 1974, when Wojciech Kurtyka from Poland spent 13 days repeating the 1967 French Route.</p><br>
<p>In 1979, the wall was free climbed for the first time by local climber Hans Christian Doseth and Ragnhild Amundsen.</p><br>
<p>Today, there are many routes on the wall, ranging in length and difficulty. The classic Rimmon and Swedish routes were normally free climbed in a day or two until being heavily damaged by the 1998 rock falls. The longer and more engaging aid routes, such as the 1972 test piece Arch Wall (climbed by Ed and Hugh Drummond in 20 days), or the 1986 Death to All/Pretty Blond Vikings, which cuts through the steepest part of the wall, require advanced knowledge of big wall climbing and several days on the wall.</p><br>
<p>Due to the serious character of the wall, in addition to a cold and damp climate, new routes on Troll Wall are rare. In February 2002, a Russian team established the Krasnoyarsk Route during 19 days. The 1,200 m long Krasnoyarsk, graded f6c+/A4+, is generally thought to be the hardest aid route on the wall and was awarded first prize in the 2002 All Russia Winter Mountaineering Championships.</p><br>
<p>In July 2010, Arch Wall, previously a serious aid route of difficulty up to A4+, saw its first all-free ascent by local climber Sindre Sæther and his father, Ole Johan. Arch Wall is about 1,200 m of climbing over 37 pitches, and it took the two a total of 36 hours of climbing to reach the summit.</p><br>
<p>In July 2012, Sindre and Ole Johan Sæther repeated the feat by free climbing the Krasnoyarsk Route.</p><br>
<p>The most recent contribution to climbs on the Troll Wall is Katharsis, established by Polish climbers Marek Raganowicz and Marcin Tomaszewski over 18 days in January and February 2015. According to Planetmountain.com, the new route shares the first two pitches of the French Route, before forging a line between the Russian Route and Arch Wall. The team reported of difficulties up to A4/M7.</p><br>
<p>On 11-26 January 2017 Polish climber Marek Raganowicz made the first solo ascents wall in winter.</p><br>
<h2>BASE Jumping</h2><br>
<p>In 1980 a new sport debuted when the Finn Jorma Öster made the first parachute jump from the Troll Wall and it was one of the pioneering sites for European BASE jumping during the first half of the 1980s. However, after a number of fatalities, the Norwegian authorities made BASE jumping from the Troll Wall illegal on July 25, 1986.</p><br>
<p>Eight BASE jumpers are known to have lost their lives at the Troll Wall. The first recorded fatality was Carl Boenish in 1984 while the most recent was in 2012.</p><br>
<p>Pisgah Covered Bridge is a wooden covered bridge that spans the west fork of the Little River in Randolph County, North Carolina. It is one of two remaining original historic covered bridges in the state,  and is designated as both a local and federal historic landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The bridge was built in 1911 by J. J. Welch at a cost of $40. It is a one-lane bridge, 54 feet in length. The bridge eventually became obsolete when it could no longer handle the increased traffic, but it remains as a tourist attraction located at 6925 Pisgah Covered Bridge Road, west of the community of Pisgah. The road now crosses a nearby two-lane concrete bridge built in the 1950s.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>Since 1998, the has collaborated with the North Carolina Department of Transportation, the Piedmont Land Conservancy, and the Landtrust for Central North Carolina to maintain and refurbish the bridge. The bridge was washed away by a flood on August 9, 2003, but was rebuilt the next year using much of the original materials that were retrieved by local area volunteers. The restoration was able to salvage about 90 percent of the materials from the original structure. The bridge is assumed originally to have had a shingle roof; however, it was replaced with tin in the 1930s. In the restoration, the roof was shingled.</p><br>
<p>There is now a gate on the road leading to the bridge, however, it is open to the public daily from dawn to dusk.</p><br>
<p>The bridge appears to have been systematically defaced by visitors who have seen fit to scrawl graffiti, some of which is obscene and offensive, the length and breadth of the structure.</p><br>
<h2>Sightseeing</h2><br>
<p>There is a quarter-mile trail through the woods on site. The trail crosses footbridges and passes a baptismal pool, downstream from the bridge.</p><br>
<p>Morro Rock  is a volcanic plug in Morro Bay, California, on the Pacific Coast at the entrance to Morro Bay harbor. A causeway connects it with the shore, making it a tied island. The rock is protected as the Morro Rock State Preserve.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The 581 ft Morro Rock is one of 13 volcanic plugs (remnant necks of extinct volcanoes), lava domes, and sheetlike intrusions between Morro Bay on the north and Islay Hill on the south, all in San Luis Obispo County.</p><br>
<p>It is composed mostly of dacite, an igneous, volcanic rock, and partially of petrified bird feces, which have compacted into the plug over the years. It is a groundmass of plagioclase, with amphibole (hornblende), biotite, pyroxene (augite), quartz, and glass; phenocrysts of plagioclase, amphibole and often quartz. Its silica (SiO2) content can range from 63 to 69 percent.</p><br>
<p>The dacite volcanic plugs, lava domes, intrusive sheets, and felsitic rhyolite-dacite between Morro Rock and Islay Hill are part of the Mono Rock-Islay Hill Complex of the Oligocene epoch (from 27 to 23 million years ago). The complex lies east of the San Gregorio-San Simeon-Hosgri fault (the SG-SS-H fault). This complex is one of three probable sources of the volcanic clasts within the sandstone and conglomerate of the Miguelito and Edna members of the Pismo Formation in the Point Sur area 145–160 km (90-100 mi) to the north and west of the SG-SS-H fault. Based on paleomagnetic signatures, the Morro Rock-Islay Hill Complex was rotated 40 to 50 degrees, perhaps during late Miocene or early Pliocene time.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Tribal</h3><br>
<p>The Salinan and Chumash tribes consider Morro Rock to be a sacred site. The Salinan name for Morro Rock is Le&#39;samo and the Chumash name is Lisamu.</p><br>
<p>The Chumash had an important nearby prehistoric settlement at least as early as the Millingstone Horizon (6500-2000 B.C.E.), and the village was near the mouth of Morro Creek, at the current site of Los Osos Middle School. The right of the Salinan people to climb Morro Rock for their biannual solstice ceremonies has been established, in which they celebrate the time in legend when a hawk and a raven destroyed a two-headed serpent-monster Taliyekatapelta as he wrapped his body around the base of the rock. The established Salinan right to climb the rock has been in legal dispute by the local Chumash tribe, which claims that Morro Rock is Chumash, not Salinan, territory. The Chumash also believe that the rock is so sacred that it should never be climbed. It is illegal for the general public to climb it.</p><br>
<h3>European sighting</h3><br>
<p>Morro Rock was probably seen by Spanish maritime explorers as early as 1542 under Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, but its current name was given during the first European land exploration of Alta California. The Spanish Portolá expedition came down Los Osos Valley and camped near today&#39;s Morro Bay on September 8, 1769. Franciscan missionary and expedition member Juan Crespí noted in his diary that "we saw a great rock in the form of a round morro".</p><br>
<h3>Exploitation</h3><br>
<p>The rock, which was quarried on and off from 1889 to 1969, provided material for the breakwater of Morro Bay and the improvements at Port San Luis Harbor. In 1966, a state law was adopted that transferred title to the State of California. In February 1968, the San Luis Obispo County Historical Society and the City of Morro Bay succeeded in having Morro Rock declared California Historical Landmark number 821.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Several types of birds nest on Morro Rock, including three cormorant species and two gull species. It presently serves as a reserve for peregrine falcons, which are locally endangered and cause most of the laws that prohibit intervention with avian life.</p><br>
<p>Sea lions and sea otters can be seen regularly in the water around the rock. Seals, however, are much more common in the nearby Morro Bay State Park, where they breed.</p><br>
<p>Other fauna include a wide selection of tide pool animals, like hermit crabs, small fish, starfish, sea cucumbers, mussels, bivalve mollusks, coral, and more.</p><br>
<p>On land few flora can survive the harsh, dry environment on the rock, but in the surrounding bay, kelp, sea grass, kelp forest plants, and tide pool plants can survive, and a few common grasses, mosses, lichens and weeds from the mainland take root on the rock itself.</p><br>
<h2>Marine protected areas</h2><br>
<p>Morro Bay State Marine Recreational Management Area and Morro Bay State Marine Reserve are protected areas offshore from Morro Bay. Like underwater parks, areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>It was one of many local landmarks to be mentioned in "Weird Al" Yankovic&#39;s 1978 song "Take Me Down."</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<p>The Perfume River  is a river that crosses the city of Huế, in the central Vietnamese province of Thừa Thiên–Huế Province. In the autumn, flowers from orchards upriver from Huế fall into the water, giving the river a perfume-like aroma, hence the soubriquet.</p><br>
<h2>Source and flow</h2><br>
<p>The Perfume River has two sources; both begin in the Dãy Trường Sơn mountain range and meet at Bằng Lãng Fork. The Tả Trạch (left tributary) originates in the Trường Đồng mountains and flows northwest towards the fork. The river then flows in south-north direction past the temples of Hòn Chén and Ngọc Trản, then flows north-west, meandering through the Nguyệt Biều and Luong Quan plains. Continuing on, the Sông Hương (Hương River) flows to the northeast to Huế and passes the resting place of the Nguyễn emperors. The river continues, passing Hen islet and various villages, crossing the Sinh junction (capital of ancient Châu Hóa) before emptying into the Tam Giang lagoon.</p><br>
<p>From Bằng Lãng to the Thuan An estuary, the river is 30 km long and runs very slowly (as the river level is not much above sea level). The river darkens as it winds along the foot of Ngọc Trản mountain, where there is a deep abyss.</p><br>
<h2>Surrounding area</h2><br>
<p>The 105m Ngự Bình mountain is strikingly symmetrical. On both sides of the Even Mount (Bang Son) are two small mounts, Ta Bat Son (left mount) and Huu Bat Son (right mount). After observing that Bang Son resembled a screen, the Nguyễn Dynasty decided to build up Huế, which became known as their "Forbidden Purple City". Emperor Gia Long approved the design of geomancers, which chose this mount as a front altar of the imposing and solid defending wall system, and renamed it Ngự Bình.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Perfume River is featured in the Vietnam War film Full Metal Jacket (1987); the action in the second half of the film (57:18) occurs around the city of Huế and the Perfume River.</p><br>
<p>The Perfume River and The City of Hue are central to the 1985 novel Word of Honor by Nelson DeMille</p><br>
<p>Scullin Monolith is a crescent-shaped rock fronting the sea 6 km west of the similar Murray Monolith, and 8 km from Torlyn Mountain, in Mac. Robertson Land, Antarctica. Early in January 1930 the British Australian New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition  under Douglas Mawson made an aerial flight from the ship over the area. Mawson set foot on the rock on 13 February 1931 and named it for James Scullin, Prime Minister of Australia in 1929 - 31. The rock was charted in January and February 1931 from Norwegian whale catchers exploring the coast, and named "Mount Klarius Mikkelsen" for Captain Klarius Mikkelsen, master of the whale catcher Torlyn. Mikkelsen Peak is retained as the name of the highest peak of the outcrop.</p><br>
<h2>Birds</h2><br>
<p>As it is not covered in snow or ice, it is an important breeding ground for birds, particularly petrels. Together, Scullin and Murray monoliths hold the greatest concentration of seabird breeding colonies in East Antarctica, including at least 160,000 pairs of Antarctic petrels and 70,000 pairs of Adélie penguins. They are protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.164.</p><br>
<p>The Pyramid of Menkaure is the smallest of the three main Pyramids of Giza located on the Giza Plateau in the southwestern outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. It is thought to have been built to serve as the tomb of the fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Menkaure.</p><br>
<h2>Size and construction</h2><br>
<p>Menkaure&#39;s pyramid had an original height of 65.5 metres (215 feet) and was the smallest of the three major pyramids at the Giza Necropolis. It now stands at 61 m (204 ft) tall with a base of 108.5 m. Its angle of incline is approximately 51°20′25″. It was constructed of limestone and granite. The first sixteen courses of the exterior were made of red granite. The upper portion was cased in the normal manner with Tura limestone. Part of the granite was left in the rough. Incomplete projects such as this pyramid help archaeologists understand the methods used to build pyramids and temples. South of the pyramid of Menkaure are three satellite pyramids that are each accompanied with a temple and have a substructure. The southernmost is the largest and a true pyramid. Its casing is partly of granite, like the main pyramid, and is believed to have been completed due to the limestone pyramidion found close by. Neither of the other two progressed beyond the construction of the inner core.</p><br>
<h2>Temple complex</h2><br>
<p>In the mortuary temple the foundations and the inner core were made of limestone. The floors were begun with granite and granite facings were added to some of the walls. The foundations of the valley temple were made of stone. However both temples were finished with crude bricks. Reisner estimated that some of the blocks of local stone in the walls of the mortuary temple weighed as much as 220 tons, while the heaviest granite ashlars imported from Aswan weighed more than 30 tons. It was not unusual for a son or successor to complete a temple when a Pharaoh died, so it is not unreasonable to assume that Shepseskaf finished the temples with crude brick. There was an inscription in the mortuary temple that said he "made it (the temple) as his monument for his father, the king of upper and lower Egypt." During excavations of the temples Reisner found a large number of statues mostly of Menkaure alone and as a member of a group. These were all carved in the naturalistic style of the old kingdom with a high degree of detail evident.</p><br>
<h2>Age and location</h2><br>
<p>The pyramids date of construction is unknown, because Menkaures reign has not been accurately defined, but it was probably completed in the 26th century BC. It lies a few hundred yards southwest of its larger neighbours, the Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Pyramid of Khufu in the Giza necropolis.</p><br>
<h2>Coffin and sarcophagus</h2><br>
<p>Richard Vyse, who first visited Egypt in 1835, discovered in the upper antechamber the remains of a wooden anthropoid coffin inscribed with Menkaure&#39;s name and containing human bones. This is now considered to be a substitute coffin from the Saite period. Radiocarbon dating on the bones determined them to be less than 2,000 years old, suggesting either an all-too-common bungled handling of remains from another site, or access to the pyramid during Roman times. Deeper into the pyramid, Vyse came upon a basalt sarcophagus, described as beautiful and rich in detail with a bold projecting corniche, which contained the bones of a young woman. Unfortunately, this sarcophagus now lies at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea, having sunk on October 13, 1838, with the ship Beatrice, as she made her way between Malta and Cartagena, on the way to Great Britain.</p><br>
<p>It was one of only a handful of Old Kingdom sarcophagi to survive into the modern period. The lid from the anthropoid coffin mentioned above was successfully transported to England and may be seen today at the British Museum.</p><br>
<h2>Attempted demolition</h2><br>
<p>At the end of the twelfth century al-Malek al-Aziz Othman ben Yusuf, Saladins son and heir, attempted to demolish the pyramids, starting with Menkaures. The workmen whom Al-Aziz had recruited to demolish the pyramid found it almost as expensive to destroy as to build. They stayed at their job for eight months. They were not able to remove more than one or two stones each day at a cost of tiring themselves out utterly. Some used wedges and levers to move the stones, while others used ropes to pull them down. When a stone fell, it would bury itself in the sand, requiring extraordinary efforts to free it. Wedges were used to split the stones into several pieces, and a cart was used to carry it to the foot of the escarpment, where it was left. Far from accomplishing what they intended to do, they merely spoiled the pyramid by leaving a large vertical gash in its north face.</p><br>
<p>Samana Cay is now an uninhabited island in the Bahamas, believed by some researchers to have been the location of Columbus&#39;s first landfall in the Americas, on October 12, 1492.</p><br>
<p>It is an islet, located in the eastern Bahamas, 22 miles (35 km) northeast of Acklins Island. About 10 miles (16 km) long and up to 2 miles (3 km) wide with an area of about 17.37 mi² (45 km²) it is bound by reefs. The verdant cay has long been uninhabited, but figurines, pottery shards, and other artifacts discovered there in the mid-1980s have been ascribed to Lucayan Indians living on the cay about the time of Christopher Columbus’ voyages.</p><br>
<p>The indigenous people of the island on which Columbus first landed called it Guanahani. Samana Cay was first proposed to be Guanahani by Gustavus Fox in 1882, but the predominant theory gives the honour to San Salvador Island. However, in 1986 Joseph Judge of National Geographic Magazine made different calculations based on extracts from Columbus&#39;s logs, and argued for Samana Cay as the location, though his methodology has also been criticised.</p><br>
<p>Samana was a name of apparent Lucayan origin (meaning "Small Middle Forest") used by the Spanish to designate one of the islands in the Bahamas. Granberry and Vesceliuus identify that island as the present-day Samana Cay.</p><br>
<p>Samana Cay had a permanent population during the first half of the 20th century and the ruins of this settlement are visible on the south side of the island, near the western end. The island is now uninhabited, but residents of nearby Acklins Island visit occasionally to collect cascarilla bark, which grows in abundance on the island.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Lofty Ranges are the range of mountains just to the east of Adelaide in the Australian state of South Australia.</p><br>
<h2>Location and description</h2><br>
<p>The Mount Lofty Ranges stretch from the southernmost point of the Fleurieu Peninsula at Cape Jervis northwards for over 300 km before petering out north of Peterborough. In the vicinity of Adelaide, they separate the Adelaide Plains from the extensive plains that surround the Murray River and stretch eastwards to Victoria.</p><br>
<p>The Heysen Trail traverses almost the entire length of the ranges, crossing westwards to the Flinders Ranges near Hallett.</p><br>
<p>The mountains have a Mediterranean climate with moderate rainfall brought by south-westerly winds, hot summers and cool winters. The southern ranges are wetter (with 900 mm of rain per year) than the northern ranges (400 mm).</p><br>
<h3>Southern ranges</h3><br>
<p>The part of the ranges south of and including the Barossa Valley are commonly known as the South Mount Lofty Ranges, and the highest part of this section is the summit of Mount Lofty (727 m). The part of the ranges nearest Adelaide is also called the Adelaide Hills.</p><br>
<p>The ranges encompass a wide variety of land usage, including significant residential development, particularly concentrated in the foothills, suburbs of Stirling and Bridgewater, and the towns Mount Barker and Victor Harbor in particular. Several pine plantation forests exist, most significantly around Mount Crawford and Cudlee Creek in the north and Kuitpo Forest and Second Valley in the south. Several protected areas exist near Adelaide where the hills face the city in order to preserve highly sought-after residential land: Black Hill Conservation Park, Cleland Conservation Park and Belair National Park are the largest. The other significant parks in the southern ranges are Deep Creek Conservation Park, on the rugged southern shores of the Fleurieu Peninsula, and Para Wirra Conservation Park at the southern edge of the Barossa Valley.</p><br>
<p>There are many wineries in the ranges. Two wine regions in particular are world-renowned: the Barossa Valley and McLaren Vale. Grapes are also grown in the Adelaide Hills and the Onkaparinga Valley.</p><br>
<p>Although no major mines operate in the southern ranges today, there are several large disused ones, and a myriad of small ones. An iron sulfide mine at Brukunga, northeast of Mount Barker, operated from 1955 to 1972, proving a valuable source for the production of superphosphate fertilisers vital for the postwar development of the State&#39;s outlying agricultural areas. The runoff from the mine unfortunately proved quite toxic for the local environment, and efforts have been underway since to alleviate the damage.</p><br>
<p>A small short-lived silver and lead mine in the foothills of the ranges at Glen Osmond was first opened just two years after the founding of the State in 1836: it is significant for being not only the first metal mine in the history of the State, but the first in all Australia. South Australia never experienced a nineteenth-century gold rush like those interstate, but gold was mined near both Echunga and Williamstown (in the Barossa). Other mines in the southern ranges include a nineteenth-century silver-lead mine at Talisker near Cape Jervis, which features many remaining old buildings, and the limestone mine at Rapid Bay, which ceased operations much more recently. Copper was mined at Kapunda, Truro and Kanmantoo and may be again and a zinc (and lead, silver and gold) mine is proposed near Strathalbyn. Quarries dot the ranges, the most spectacular and massive of which are in the Adelaide foothills; they supplied much of the quartzite which is to be seen in the enduring "sandstone architecture" of early Adelaide.</p><br>
<p>Only one railway now crosses the ranges: the major Adelaide-Melbourne line, which was first constructed in the 1870s and has had only minor realignments since (the most significant of which was the boring of a new tunnel at Sleeps Hill). Passenger services used to run from the city to Bridgewater in the heart of the hills and ranges, but now stop at Belair in the foothills. A railway approaches the ranges at Willunga (although it was discontinued in the 1960s and has since been replaced by a cycling trail). The Mount Barker to Victor Harbor line (now used only for recreational purposes) largely skirts the eastern edge of the ranges. North of Adelaide, there is a railway to Angaston in the east of the Barossa Valley, and former railways to Truro and across the ranges near Eudunda to Morgan on the Murray River.</p><br>
<p>The ranges form part of the water supply for Adelaide, and there is an extensive infrastructure of reservoirs, weirs, and pipelines, on the Torrens, Onkaparinga, Little Para and Gawler River catchments. Mount Bold, South Para, Kangaroo Creek, and Millbrook reservoirs are the largest.</p><br>
<h3>Northern ranges</h3><br>
<p>The northern ranges, often confused with the southern Flinders Ranges, and sometimes referred to as the "Mid-North ranges" or "central hill country", stretch from hills near Kapunda in the south to arid ranges beyond Peterborough in the northeast. The highest peak in this section (and in all the Mount Lofty Ranges - despite the name) is Mount Bryan (936 m). Other significant peaks include New Campbell Hill (714 m) and Stein Hill (605 m), which overlooks Burra.</p><br>
<p>Mining, although totally absent today, was once a major industry in the northern ranges. The copper mine at Kapunda, just north of the Barossa, operated from 1842 to 1877 and was a major boost to the infant State&#39;s economy, but was soon overshadowed by the large workings at Burra, further north. The mine here operated from 1845 to 1877 with a few minor interruptions, and was superseded by even larger workings on the Yorke Peninsula. As testament to the volume of copper at Burra, however, the mine re-opened as an open-cut in 1971, before closing again ten years later.</p><br>
<p>The Clare Valley lies in a shallow fold of the northern Mount Lofty Ranges just southwest of Burra. It is yet another world-class wine producing area, and is a very popular weekend tourist destination for people living in Adelaide. It is also home to the only conservation park in the northern ranges, Spring Gully.</p><br>
<p>The northern end of the ranges are home to two curiosities: a tiny township by the name of Yongala, familiar to all South Australians for commonly being the coldest place in the State (being a hundred kilometres inland, and on a somewhat elevated plateau as with much of the Mid North). The other curiosity is a locality near Orroroo called "Magnetic Hill". The name stems from a reputation that if you take your car there, it will roll uphill.</p><br>
<h2>Geomorphology</h2><br>
<p>The ranges are part of the Adelaide Geosyncline. The southern ranges and slopes of Mount Lofty overlooking the Adelaide Plains have been block-faulted to form a half-graben structure. The ranges when viewed from the beach or city have a "stepped" appearance, reflected in an early name for the ranges, "The Tiers".</p><br>
<p>There are several major normal faults in the Adelaide region, trending northeast to southwest defining these blocks:</p><br>
<p>Para Fault. This runs from Gawler in the north, through Elizabeth, before disappearing under younger alluvium in the inner northern suburbs. The scarp which this fault has formed is covered with houses in the northern suburbs (Para Hills) and the township of Gawler is nestled at its base where the South Para River emerges from the range. Closer to the city the scarp becomes less defined and is unidentifiable beyond the low hill upon which North Adelaide rests.</p><br>
<p>Eden-Burnside Fault Zone. This fault zone (composed of several different individual faults) lies at the base of the main scarp of the Adelaide Hills, separating the young Quaternary alluvium of the plains from the Proterozoic sedimentary rocks making up the ranges. It begins around One Tree Hill in the northern suburbs and extends as an escarpment of approximately 200 m high in a slightly curving line for about 30 km before encountering the sea at Marino. This escarpment is known as the "Hills Face Zone" and is subject to special zoning restrictions; house prices are very high, as is demand for land, owing to the magnificent views, but many in the community are concerned with maintaining green hills as a background to the plains. A number of creeks cut deep notches in the scarp; one of these, Glen Osmond Creek, provides the site for the major road east out of Adelaide, now called the South Eastern Freeway; only a handful of other major roads extend up the scarp.</p><br>
<p>Kitchener Fault. This long fault, just a little further to the east, extends from north of the Barossa Valley past the Torrens gorge to meet the Eden Fault in the vicinity of Greenhill. It is most apparent as a fault scarp around Williamstown and Kersbrook.</p><br>
<p>Clarendon Fault. Running largely parallel to the Eden-Burnside Fault, this forms the escarpment within Belair National Park, which also runs south-east to form the eastern boundary of the southern suburbs, before ending at Old Noarlunga, where the Onkaparinga River emerges from the ranges. An escarpment also extends from the northern end of this fault to form the upper tier of Mount Lofty: Measdays Hill (now carved in half by a massive cutting for the SE Freeway at Crafers West) and Mount Lofty itself are at the top of this scarp.</p><br>
<p>Willunga Fault. This fault runs parallel to the Clarendon Fault, further south once more, and is the southernmost of the faults. The escarpment it lies at the base of is similarly dramatic, beginning in the Scott Creek Conservation Park and running southwest: Mount Bold Reservoir forms where the Onkaparinga River has been dammed in the middle of the escarpment. Further south, the townships of Kangarilla and Willunga nestle in gullies of the scarp, and the increasingly dramatic and bare face of "The Range", as it is known (properly Sellicks Hill Range) meets the sea at Sellicks Beach.</p><br>
<p>Bremer and Palmer Fault Zones. These faults are at the eastern edge of the Mount Lofty Ranges block, and form even more dramatic escarpments than those in the west due to the general lack of the vegetation in the countryside. The latter fault zone is the eastern edge of the metamorphosed Proterozoic rocks of the Kanmantoo group; to the east lie the younger sediments of the Murray River. Towns like Palmer, Sedan, and Cambrai, lie at the foot of the scarp.</p><br>
<p>All the fault zones are still active today, along with the rest of the ranges, and minor earthquakes are relatively common. Larger quakes in the southern ranges are fairly rare: the last to hit a major centre was the 1954 Adelaide earthquake that occurred on 1 March. It measured 5.5 on the Richter scale.</p><br>
<p>A significant aspect of the geology of the Adelaide area is a number of Tertiary marine sands deposits, many of which have been extensively quarried. One of these deposits is around the outer-northern suburb of Golden Grove; another area is around McLaren Vale.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The natural habitat of the mountainsides is woodland of eucalyptus trees mixed with golden wattle acacia trees on the lower slopes, all with an undergrowth of shrubs and herbs. The flowers include a number of endemic orchids. Similar habitats can be found on the offshore Kangaroo Island which is included by the World Wildlife Fund in the Mount Lofty woodlands ecoregion. The western half of Kangaroo Island has more open woodland containing sugar gum (Eucalyptus cladocalyx) and drooping sheoak (Allocasuarina verticillata) and more endemic plant species in general than are found on the mainland.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>The mountains are home to a number of marsupials such as the koala, western gray kangaroo, southern brown bandicoot and the tammar wallaby on Kangaroo Island and a monotreme (egg-laying mammal), the echidna (while the platypus remains on Kangaroo Island only). Birds include the southern emu-wren which is endemic to the Fleurieu Peninsula. There are a number of reptiles including the endangered Adelaide pygmy blue-tongue skink.</p><br>
<h3>Threats and preservation</h3><br>
<p>The hillsides have largely been cleared of woodland for fruit growing and other agriculture and the urban growth of Adelaide particularly on the lower slopes, leading to loss of habitat and local extinction of wildlife species including all species of bettong and quoll marsupials and birds including regent honeyeater (Xanthomyza phrygia), swift parrot (Lathamus discolor), king quail (Coturnix chinensis), brown quail (C. ypsilophora), and azure kingfisher (Alcedo azurea). Clearance and agriculture are ongoing and livestock grazing continues to cause damage to habitats while introduced cats, foxes and rabbits are a threat to habitats and wildlife. Protected areas tend to be small and fragmented. Kangaroo Island has been less affected and also does not have rabbits or foxes, although koalas have been introduced from the Australian mainland and are causing damage to habitats.</p><br>
<p>Takht-i-Bahi , commonly mispronounced as Takht-i-Bhai , is an Indo-Parthian archaeological site of an ancient Buddhist monastery in Mardan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The site is considered the among the most imposing relics of Buddhism in all of Gandhara, and has been "exceptionally well-preserved."</p><br>
<p>The Buddhist monastery was founded in the 1st century CE, and was in use until the 7th century.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The word Takht-i-Bahi may have different explanations. Local believes that site got its name from two wells on the hill or the springs nearby. In Persian, Takht means "top" or "throne" while bahi means "spring" or "water". When combined together its meaning is Spring from the Top or High Spring, and there were two springs on the top of mountains. Another meaning suggested is Throne of Origin.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The ruins are located about 15 kilometers from Mardan in Pakistan&#39;s Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Province. It is located around 500 feet atop the small hill and around 2 km from village bazar. The surrounding area is famous for sugar cane, wheat, maize, vegetable, and orchard cultivation.</p><br>
<h2>Structure</h2><br>
<p>There are four main areas of the Takht Bahi complex:</p><br>
<p>The Stupa Court, a cluster of stupas located in a central courtyard.</p><br>
<p>The monastic chambers, consisting of individual cells arranged around a courtyard, assembly halls, and a dining area.</p><br>
<p>A temple complex, consisting of stupas and similar to the Stupa Court, but of later construction.</p><br>
<p>The Tantric monastic complex, which consists of small, dark cells with low openings, which may have been used for certain forms of Tantric meditation.</p><br>
<p>Additional structures on the site may have served as residences or meeting halls, or for secular purposes. All of the buildings on the site are constructed from local stone, and are mortared with lime and mud.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeologists have divided the history of the complex into four periods, beginning in the 1st century BCE.</p><br>
<p>The monastic complex was likely founded in the early 1st century CE. It is proven by an inscriptions found bearing the name of Gondophares (20-46 CE). After Gondophares, the place fell under control of Kujula Kadphises, the first Kushan king. This first era continued until the 2nd century CE, and is associated with another Kushan king Kanishka, as well as early Parthian and later Kushan kings. The second construction period, which included the creation of the Stupa Court and assembly hall, took place during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE. A third construction period, associated with the later Kushan dynasty and the Kidara Kushana rulers, occurred during the 4th and 5th centuries. The final construction period, which saw the creation of the so-called Tantric complex, took place in the 6th and 7th centuries CE, and was overseen by invading Hun rulers.</p><br>
<p>Despite numerous invasions into the area, Takht-i-Bahi&#39;s hilltop location seems to have protected it from destruction, unlike many comparable early Buddhist monastic complexes.</p><br>
<p>The first modern historical reference to these ruins was made in 1836 by the French Officer, the Buddhist remains are in a village named Mazdoorabad. Explorations and excavations on this site began in 1864. A significant number of objects from the site can be found in the British Museum. The site underwent a major restoration in the 1920s.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological remains</h2><br>
<h2>Works of art</h2><br>
<h2>Nearby localities</h2><br>
<p>The villages of Thordher (Old name Said Ghani Kalae), Ghafe, Lund Khwar, Sher Garh, Saroo Shah, Sehri-Bahlol, Pathai, Mazdoorabad, Fazl-e-abad, Gangai, Hathian, Jalala, Pirsaddi, Takkar and Mashal Khan Kalai are other historical places in the vicinity of Takht-Bhai. The most historical location in the era is Sehri Bahlol. This Buddhist monastery is situated on Malakand Road.</p><br>
<p>The word "Sehri-Bahlol" has been explained by various people in different ways. Local people claim that this is a Hindko word meaning "Sir Bahlol", a prominent political and religious leader of the area. However, the name is not as old as the village of Sehri-Bahlol.</p><br>
<p>Meager economic conditions, poor educational facilities, and the nefarious effect of dealers of antiquities often result in severe hazard for the proper preservation of archaeological heritage in minor, less controlled sites.</p><br>
<p>Lake Fork Reservoir is a reservoir located in Wood, Rains, and Hopkins counties in the state of Texas, between the towns of Quitman, Alba, Emory, and Yantis, Texas.</p><br>
<p>It was impounded by the Lake Fork Dam in 1980, and reached its normal pool surface elevation of 403.0 feet (123 m) above mean sea level in 1985. It consists of 27,690 acres (112 km²), situated in It offers 315 miles (507 km) of shoreline, and has a drainage area of 493 square miles (1,277 km²). The dam is 12,410 feet (3,783 m) in length and impounds Lake Fork Creek, a tributary of the Sabine River, and other major creeks are Big Caney and Little Caney.</p><br>
<p>The dam and reservoir with a maximum capacity of 675,819 acre-feet are owned and operated by the Sabine River Authority, a state agency.</p><br>
<p>It officially serves as a reservoir for Dallas and its suburbs. However, it is best known for its fishing, as it holds 15 of the top 20 Texas State Record Largemouth Bass ever caught, making it one of the premier trophy bass fishing lakes in the world.</p><br>
<h2>Fishing</h2><br>
<p>Lake Fork Reservoir was created as a textbook fishery, including initial stockings before the lake filled. Lake Fork Reservoir was established, by the Texas Parks and Wildlife, as a premier bass fishing lake, with 732,514 Florida-strain largemouth bass being stocked from 1979 through 1987. Lake Fork Reservoir offers excellent fish habitat with 80% standing timber left intact, and hydrilla, milfoil, and duckweed being the predominant vegetation. Other species of fish include Catfish, Sand Bass, Yellow Bass, Black and White crappie, Sunfish, Bowfin, Gar, and Bluegill. The predominant food source for the larger fish is Shad, Minnows, and Crawfish.</p><br>
<p>To preserve the great Lake Fork Reservoir bass fisheries, the Texas Parks and Wildlife implemented a protected slot limit of no bass between 16 and 24 inches will be kept, and will be returned into the waters of Lake Fork immediately. A 5 bass per day limit can be kept, consisting of 5 under 16 inches (406 mm), or 1 over 24 inches (609 mm), and 4 under 16 inches (406 mm).</p><br>
<p>The Bell Witch Cave is a karst cave located in Adams, Tennessee near where the Bell Farm once stood. The cave is approximately 490 feet  long. The cave is privately owned, and tours are given during the summer months and in October.</p><br>
<p>This cave has been associated with the Bell Witch, a period during which the Bell Family was allegedly haunted by the Bell Witch. The cave is located on property once owned by the Bell family. Many believe that when the witch departed, she fled to the sanctuary of this cave.</p><br>
<p>In the particular legend in which the cave is featured, young Betsy Bell and some of her friends had gone to explore the cave. While they were there, one of the boys crawled into a hole and became stuck. A voice cried out, "I&#39;ll get him out!". The boy felt hands grasping his feet, and he was pulled out of the hole. The Bell Witch (still invisible), then gave the young explorers a lecture on reckless cave exploring.</p><br>
<p>The Bacchiglione  is a river that flows through northern Italy. It rises in the Alps and empties about 90 mi later into the Gulf of Venice on the Adriatic Sea near Chioggia. It flows through and past a number of cities, including Vicenza and Padua. It acted for many centuries as a significant waterway up to Vicenza, above which it ceases to be navigable. It was connected in the 19th century to the Adige by a canal.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>At Ponte del Bo, above Vicenza, it joins with the Orolo. In Vicenza, the Bacchiglione is joined by the river Retrone and Astichello. The river is about 118 km long and has a basin of 1,400 km&sup2;. The average flow of the Bacchiglione in Padua is about 30 m/s and flows through the summer dry season. The river can flood in the autumn and spring.</p><br>
<h2>Bisatto Canal</h2><br>
<p>At Longare, the Bisatto (or "Bisato") Canal was built in the twelfth century. Verona and Vicenza built it to divert water away from Padua during the many political struggles of the time, as told in the ninth canto of Dante&#39;s "Paradiso". The channel goes to Lozzo Atestino and Este; then continues to Monselice ("Este - Montelice Canal"). Then into the Battaglia Terme ("Battle Canal" or "Monselice Canal"), where it meets the Battaglia Canal from Padua. Through the Vigenzone Canal ("Cagnola Canal ") waters are reunited with the river Bacchiglione ("Channel Pontelongo"), allowing Vicenza to arrive in Chioggia without having to pass through Padua.</p><br>
<h2>Brentella Canal</h2><br>
<p>The Brentella Canal originates from the Brenta River in Limena, where the flow is regulated by a hydraulic barrier (the "Colmelloni"), and joins the Bacchiglione just before Padua&#39;s airport. The Brentella Canal was built in 1314 Padua to prevent the city of Vicenza from stopping the river when it created the Bisatto Canal.</p><br>
<h2>Battaglia Canal</h2><br>
<p>On the southern outskirts of Padua, the Battaglia Canal begins. Built in the Twelfth Century, it heads south towards Battaglia Spa. This is connection from the Canal Bisatto, which separated from the Bacchiglione River at Vicenza. Through the Channel Vigenzone and then "Channel Cagnola", to flow again in the final stretch of the Bacchiglione ("Pontelongo Canal").</p><br>
<h2>Scaricatore Canal</h2><br>
<p>To prevent flood damage in the second half of the nineteenth century the Scaricatore Canal was built. It starts from Bassanello and carries the excess water from the Padua River (Channel Roncajette), near the town of Voltabarozzo.</p><br>
<h2>Notable bridges</h2><br>
<p>The Ponte San Lorenzo, a Roman bridge largely underground, along with the ancient Ponte Molino, Ponte Altinate, Ponte Corvo and Ponte S. Matteo.</p><br>
<p>Ponte San Lorenzo, Padua, one of the earliest Roman segmental arch bridges</p><br>
<p>Ponte Molino, Padua, another segmental arch bridge of Roman origin</p><br>
<p>Varanger Peninsula  is a peninsula in Finnmark county, Norway. It is located in the northeasternmost part of Norway, along the Barents Sea. The peninsula has the Tanafjorden to the west, the Varangerfjorden to the south, and the Barents Sea to the north and east. The municipalities of Vadsø, Båtsfjord, Berlevåg, Vardø, Tana, and Nesseby share the 2,069 km&sup2; peninsula. Nesseby and Tana are only partially on the peninsula, with the rest being entirely on the peninsula.</p><br>
<p>The peninsula gave the name to the Varangian glaciation episode. A large part of this peninsula, including the town of Vardø (located on an island just off the coast of the peninsula), has an Arctic tundra climate. However, on the south coast, including the town of Vadsø, there is sufficient summer heat for birch trees to grow. The area has rugged mountain terrain with altitudes up to 633 m.</p><br>
<p>The Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management has a project on the peninsula for the reintroduction and protection of the Arctic fox, which is critically endangered on the Norwegian mainland. In addition to introducing animals into nature, the larger and stronger Red fox is hunted down.</p><br>
<p>There are many species of sea birds along the coast of the peninsula; some arctic species of birds spend the winters along the coast of the peninsula. The Varangerhalvøya National Park protects a majority of the land on the peninsula.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Much of the relief of Varanger Peninsula is a paleic surface similar to the one found in the highlands of southern Norway. In the peninsula the paleic surface is made up of an undulating plateau between the altitudes of 200 and 600 m.a.s.l. The higher parts of the undulating plateau are made up by erosion-resistant rocks like quartzite. The lower parts are made up by weak rocks like shale and mudstone. At intermediate levels sandstone is common. Some parts of the paleic surface in Varanger Peninsula are a re-exposed unconformity that underlie sedimentary rock of Vendian (Late Neoproterozoic) age. The paleic surface might have been uplifted as much as 200-250 meters since middle Pliocene times.</p><br>
<h2>Media gallery</h2><br>
<p>Reventador is an active stratovolcano which lies in the eastern Andes of Ecuador. It lies in a remote area of the national park of the same name, which is Spanish for exploder or ripper. Since 1541 it has erupted over 25 times, although its isolated location means that many of its eruptions have gone unreported. Its most recent eruption began in 2008 and is ongoing. The largest historical eruption occurred in 2002. During that eruption the plume from the volcano reached a height of 17 km and pyroclastic flows went up to 7 km from the cone.</p><br>
<p>On March 30, 2007, the mountain ejected ash again. The ash reached a height of about two miles (3 km, 11,000 ft). No injuries or damages have been reported.</p><br>
<p>The volcano&#39;s main peak lies inside a U-shaped caldera which is open towards the Amazon basin to the east. Its lavas are andesitic.</p><br>
<p>According to NOAA Aviation Weather, a Volcanic Ash Advisory was issued at 2017-10-18T 13:17:00Z for volcanic ash to 13,000 ft.</p><br>
<p>Fort Crown Point was a British fort built by the combined efforts of both British and provincial troops  in North America in 1759 at a narrows on Lake Champlain on what later became the border between New York and Vermont. Erected to secure the region against the French, the fort is in upstate New York near the town of Crown Point and was the largest earthen fortress built in the United States. The fort&#39;s ruins, a National Historic Landmark, are now administered as part of Crown Point State Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The French built a fortress at Crown Point in the 1730s with 12 ft thick limestone walls named Fort St. Frederic. British forces targeted it twice during the French and Indian War before the French destroyed it in the summer of 1759.</p><br>
<p>The Crown Point fort was constructed by the British army under the command of Sir Jeffery Amherst following the capture of Carillon, a French fort to the south (which he renamed Ticonderoga), and the destruction of Fort St. Frédéric. Amherst used the construction of the fort as a means of keeping his men working through the winter of 1759 after pushing the French into modern Canada. Israel Putnam, who would later become a major general in the American Revolution, supervised much of the construction. According to archaeologist David R. Starbuck, Crown Point was "the greatest British military installation ever raised in North America."</p><br>
<p>The fort was never directly assaulted. Mostly built after the threat of French invasion had ended, it was used largely for staging rather than as a position in its own right. On April 21, 1773, a chimney fire broke out in the soldier&#39;s barracks. It quickly spread, burning for days. In May 1774, British military engineer John Montresor described the fort (post fire) with the following words: "the conflagration of the late fort has rendered it an amazing useless mass of earth only". Montresor proposed expanding and improving one of the outworks rather than attempting to repair the main fort.</p><br>
<p>After the French and Indian War, the British left a skeletal force at the fort. They quickly yielded to Capt. Seth Warner and 100 Green Mountain Boys, a Patriot American militia, on May 12, 1775 in the battle of Crown Point at the start of the Revolutionary War. The Americans captured 111 cannons from the British at Crown Point, and transported 29 to Boston for the defense of Boston Harbor.</p><br>
<p>The fort was used as a staging ground by Benedict Arnold during the Revolution for his navy on Lake Champlain. After the destruction of that navy in 1776 during the Battle of Valcour Island, the fort was abandoned to the British in 1777 after the failure of the patriot Invasion of Canada. In 1780 the British abandoned the fort and, following their success in the Revolution, the United States had no need for it, so left it to deteriorate.</p><br>
<p>The large earthen walls of the Fort are still visible today in the 21st century. The fire of April 1773 had entirely destroyed the log and earth fortress. The stone ruins of two barracks buildings at the site and are being preserved.</p><br>
<p>The fort was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1968.</p><br>
<h2>Visits by Founding Fathers</h2><br>
<p>Benjamin Franklin, traveling to Canada, seeking an alliance against the British</p><br>
<p>George Washington, July 21, 1783, the farthest north he ever traveled</p><br>
<p>Future Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in 1791</p><br>
<p>Mount Lemmon , with a summit elevation of 9,159 ft, It is reported that Mount Lemmon Ski Valley, on the mountain&#39;s northeastern side, receives 200 in of snow annually.</p><br>
<h2>Summerhaven</h2><br>
<p>Summerhaven is a small town near the top of the mountain. It is a summer residence for many but there are some year round residents. There are many small cabins most of which were rebuilt after the Aspen Fire of July 2003.</p><br>
<h2>Mount Lemmon Station Observatory</h2><br>
<p>At the peak is the Mount Lemmon Observatory, which was formerly the site of a USAF radar base of the Air Defense Command, and the building that formerly housed a military emergency radar tracking station for landing the Space Shuttle at White Sands Missile Range. Although the United States military had a presence on the mountain for several decades all their facilities have been abandoned and were given to the United States Forest Service. The area and buildings that makes up the Mount Lemmon Station Observatory are leased from the Forest Service by the University of Arizona. The telescopes on the mountain are still used for astronomical research today by organizations such as the Catalina Sky Survey, the Mount Lemmon Sky Center, the University of Arizona Astronomy Camp program, the University of Arizona, and the University of Minnesota. The educational resources at the top of the mountain make it a unique research and teaching destination.</p><br>
<h2>Catalina Highway</h2><br>
<p>The Catalina Highway, also called the Mount Lemmon Highway, as well as the Hitchcock Highway (after Frank Harris Hitchcock) runs up the Santa Catalina Mountains from the east side of Tucson up to Summerhaven, at the top of Mt. Lemmon. The beautiful, curving road is a favorite drive for tourists, for locals escaping summer&#39;s heat and cyclists, and has been recently designated as the Sky Island Parkway, part of the US National Scenic Byway system.</p><br>
<p>2010 saw the inaugural running of the Mount Lemmon Marathon.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The summit of the mountain is approximately twenty degrees cooler than the base. Therefore, large amounts of snow falls during the winter months, making it a cool escape and popular tourist attraction for Tucson and Phoenix inhabitants.</p><br>
<h2>Fees and Permits</h2><br>
<p>Catalina Highway charges tolls for parking, camping, and hiking. However, the tolls are only officially charged for people who are camping. Tolls for other events, such as hiking, parking, or grilling, are a part of the honor system. Park rangers will not check for toll payments unless someone is using the park campgrounds. Anyone wishing to sightsee or travel to Summerhaven are not subjected to paying tolls.</p><br>
<h2>Back side</h2><br>
<p>An unpaved road to the summit on the north side of Mount Lemmon starts in Oracle, which is on Arizona Route 77 north of Tucson. It offers a secondary route to the top. This route is popular with off-road 4x4 drivers and with off-road or dual-purpose motorcyclists. This road ends at the Catalina Highway near Loma Linda. Before the Catalina Highway was built it was the only route up the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Mureybet  is a tell, or ancient settlement mound, located on the west bank of the Euphrates in Raqqa Governorate, northern Syria. The site was excavated between 1964 and 1974 and has since disappeared under the rising waters of Lake Assad. Mureybet was occupied between 10,200 and 8,000 BC and is the eponymous type site for the Mureybetian culture, a subdivision of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A . In its early stages, Mureybet was a small village occupied by hunter-gatherers. Hunting was important and crops were first gathered and later cultivated, but they remained wild. During its final stages, domesticated animals were also present at the site.</p><br>
<h2>History of research</h2><br>
<p>The first archaeological investigation of the site was carried out in 1964. In that year, the site was noted during an archaeological survey of the region directed by Maurits N. van Loon of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, and a small sounding was made. In 1965, a more extensive excavation was carried out, again under the direction of Van Loon. Between 1971 and 1974, work on the site was resumed by a team of the French Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS) directed by Jacques Cauvin. All excavations were part of the larger international – and eventually UNESCO-coordinated – effort to investigate as many archaeological sites as possible in the area that would be flooded by Lake Assad, the reservoir of the Tabqa Dam, which was being built at that time. The filling of Lake Assad eventually led to the flooding of Mureybet in 1976. Although the site is now submerged and no longer accessible, the material that has been retrieved during the excavations continues to generate new research. This material is currently stored at the National Museum of Aleppo and the Institute de Préhistoire Orientale in Jalès-Berrias in France.</p><br>
<h2>Mureybet and its environment</h2><br>
<p>Mureybet is located in modern-day Raqqa Governorate in northern Syria. It is situated on an elongated ridge that is c. 4 m above the river terrace of the Euphrates, which flowed directly west of the site before the valley was flooded. Mureybet is a tell, or ancient settlement mound, measuring 75 m in diameter and 6 m high.</p><br>
<p>Climate and environment of Mureybet during the time of its occupation were very different from the modern situation. When Mureybet became occupied around 10,200 BC, climate was slightly colder and more humid than today, an effect of the onset of the Younger Dryas climate change event. Annual precipitation increased slightly from 230 mm during the Natufian to 280 mm during the Mureybetian occupation phases. The vegetation consisted of an open forest steppe with species like terebinth, almond and wild cereals.</p><br>
<h2>Occupation history</h2><br>
<p>The excavations have revealed four occupation phases I–IV, ranging from the Natufian up to the Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) and dating to 10,200–8,000 BC, based on AMS radiocarbon dates.</p><br>
<p>Phases IB, IIA and IIB (9,700–9,300 BC) make up the Khiamian, a poorly understood and sometimes disputed sub-phase straddling the transition from the Natufian to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA). Mureybet is the only site where Khiamian deposits are associated with architectural remains. The oldest of these remains date to phase IB and consist of a round semi-subterranean structure with a diameter of 6 m. In the subsequent phases, slightly smaller round houses built at ground level also appeared, at least some of which were used simultaneously. The walls were built from compacted earth, sometimes reinforced with stones. Hearths and cooking pits were located outside the buildings. Harvested crops included barley, rye and Polygonum. Sickle blades and grinding stones are more common and show more use-wear, indicating that cereals became a more important component in the diet. The fauna at Mureybet changed significantly during phase IIB. Gazelle makes up 70% of the assemblage and small animals decrease in importance, although fish remained important. Toward the end of the Khiamian, equid hunting gained importance at the expense of gazelle.</p><br>
<p>Phases IIIA and IIIB (9,300–8,600 BC) represent the Mureybetian, a subphase of the PPNA that was named after Mureybet and is found in the area of the Middle Euphrates. Architecture diversified, with rectangular, multi-cellular buildings appearing next to the round buildings that were already known from the previous phases. Walls were built from cigar-shaped stones that were created by percussion and that were covered with earth. Semi-subterranean structures also continued to be used and they are compared to similar structures found at nearby and contemporary Jerf el-Ahmar, where the structures are interpreted as special buildings with a communal function. Many rooms in the rectangular structures were so small that they could only have served for storage. Hearths and cooking pits lined with stones continued to be located in the outdoor areas. The wild varieties of barley, rye and einkorn were consumed in phase III. Different lines of evidence suggest that these cereals were cultivated rather than gathered. Hunting of equids and aurochs was more important than of gazelle, while fish remains were rare in phase III contexts. Based on use-wear analysis, it could also be established that animal hides were processed at the site using bone and stone tools. The earliest known writing for record keeping evolved from a system of counting using small clay tokens. The earliest use of small clay tokens for counting were found in phase III. It coincided with a period of explosive rapid growth of the use of cereals in the Near East.</p><br>
<p>The last occupation phases, IVA (8,600–8,200 BC) and IVB (8,200–8,000 BC) date to the Early and Middle PPNB, respectively. No architecture has been encountered in phase IVA. No domesticated cereals were found, but this may be an effect of very small archaeobotanical sample that was retrieved from these phases. Hunting focused on equids, followed by aurochs. It could not be determined whether any domesticated animals were exploited in Mureybet. Mud-built walls of rectangular structures were uncovered in phase IVB. Domesticated sheep and goat were exploited in this period, and domesticated cattle may also have been present.</p><br>
<h2>Material culture</h2><br>
<p>The excavation of Mureybet has produced an abundance of lithic material. During all periods, flint was the main raw material from which tools were made. It was procured from local sources. Obsidian was much less common. Natufian tools include points, burins, scrapers, borers and herminettes, a kind of tool that was primarily used for woodwork. Flint arrowheads appeared in the Khiamian period. Other stone tools included burins, end-scrapers and borers. Mureybetian stone tools included Mureybet arrowheads, scrapers and burins, while borers were much less common. During the PPNB phase, Byblos arrowheads replaced the Mureybetian types, and other technological improvements were also introduced.</p><br>
<p>Apart from the lithics, other artefact categories were also present in Mureybet in smaller quantities. Personal ornaments in the Natufian period consisted of pierced shells and small stone and shell discs. Only a few bone tools were found. During the Khiamian, bone was used for needles, awls and axe sheaths. Beads were made from stone, freshwater shells and bone. Among the three figurines from this phase was one with clear anthropomorphic characteristics. The Mureybetian bone tool assemblage closely resembled its Khiamian predecessor. The presence of baskets at Mureybet has been inferred from use-wear analysis on flint and bone tools. Other artifact categories include limestone vessels, stone querns, beads, pendants, including one from ivory and eight anthropomorphic figurines made from limestone and baked earth. Seven of these figurines could be identified as women.</p><br>
<p>Stanley Reservoir  is one of largest fishing reservoirs in South India. Its main source of water is the River Kaveri . Three minor tributaries – Palar, Chennar and Thoppar – enter the Kaveri on her course above Stanley Reservoir. The water is retained by the Mettur Dam, Tamil Nadu. Its total capacity is more than 93,470,000,000 cubic feet .</p><br>
<p>The Stanley Reservoir is one of the largest of its kind in India. It was completed in 1934. The creation of the reservoir caused the submersion of two villages, all of whose inhabitants were relocated to Mettur.</p><br>
<p>The total length of the dam is 1700 meters. The Mettur hydro electric power project is also quite large. The dam, the park, the major hydroelectric power stations and hills on all sides make Mettur a tourist attraction.It is named after Lieutenant Colonel Sir George Frederick Stanley GCSI GCIE CMG, He served the Governor of Madras from 1929 to 1934 and as Acting Viceroy of India in 1934.</p><br>
<p>The Bermejo River  is a river in South America that flows from Bolivia to the Paraguay River in Argentina. The river is generally called Bermejo in spite of its different names along its way, but it also has its own Native American names; in Wichí it is called Teuco, and in Guaraní it is called Ypitá. In the plains of Argentina&#39;s Gran Chaco the Bermejo forms wetlands and splits into two branches. The southern branch is the bed of the old Bermejo River, now an intermittent stream called Río Bermejito. The northern branch is now the main stem of the Bermejo and is called the Teuco River , Bermejo Nuevo, or simply the Bermejo River. The two branches rejoin at {{coord|25|39|S|60|11|W|type:river_region:AR_dim:10km_source:GNS|display=inline}}, near Villa Río Bermejito, forming the Lower Bermejo River.</p><br>
<p>The Bermejo River is 1,060 km long and has a drainage basin of 123,000 km&sup2; in area. Its mean annual discharge is irregular and varies between 20 m3/s and 14,000 m3/s.</p><br>
<p>The river is born in a mountain range known as Sierra de Santa Victoria around coordinates 22&deg;00&prime;14&Prime;S latitude, 64&deg;57&prime;30&Prime;W longitude near Tarija, a few kilometres southeast of Chaguaya in Bolivia, and not far from La Quiaca, Jujuy Province, Argentina. In general, it maintains a southeastern direction. At its highest part, its main tributaries are the Lipeo River, and further downstream the Grande de Tarija, the Iruya River, and the San Francisco River. It forms part of the international boundary between Argentina and Bolivia.</p><br>
<p>The Bermejo is not navigable. In the late 19th century, numerous attempts were made to open up the commercial navigation of the river, but all of them failed, largely due to the river&#39;s shallow waters, which carry enormous amounts of sediment. Near the Tropic of Capricorn, the river splits in two; the smaller southern branch, Bermejito, and the northern branch that known as the Teuco River (also called Bermejo or Bermejo Nuevo). When leaving the province of Salta, the Teuco marks the boundary between the provinces of Chaco and Formosa.</p><br>
<p>The Bermejito, is intermittent and meandering. It crosses Chaco Province near the El Impenetrable jungle. On the shores of this river can still be seen the ruins of the former towns of Concepcion del Bermejo, San Bernardo de Vértiz (25&deg;8&prime;S latitude, 61&deg;8&prime;W longitude), and La Cangayé (25&deg;36&prime;S latitude, 60&deg;19&prime;W longitude).</p><br>
<p>The Teuco follows its course to finality and into the Paraguay River, in front of the city of Pilar, in Paraguay.</p><br>
<p>The river carries red-coloured sediments and produces irregular accumulations that can even alter its course, leaving the older paths as wet depressions.</p><br>
<p>Note: the upper part of the Desaguadero River is sometimes also called the Bermejo.</p><br>
<p>The River Suck  is a river within the Shannon River Basin in Ireland, 133 km  in length.</p><br>
<p>It is the main tributary of the River Shannon. It meets the Shannon a kilometer south of the village of Shannonbridge.</p><br>
<p>The River Suck drains an area of 1,599 km&sup2;. It forms much of the border between County Roscommon and County Galway, flowing along the western side of County Roscommon. Together with the Shannon on the east, it creates the long narrow form that the southern part of County Roscommon has, clearly noticeable on maps.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The river&#39;s name is derived from the Irish suca, of uncertain meaning, possibly deriving from succin, Middle Irish for "amber."</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>Settlements along the river include Athleague, Ballinasloe, Ballyforan, Ballymoe, Castlerea, Glinsk, and Tulrush.</p><br>
<h2>Suck Valley Way</h2><br>
<p>The Suck Valley Way is a long-distance trail. it is a 105 km long circular route that begins and ends in Castlerea, County Roscommon. It is designated as a National Waymarked Trail by the National Trails Office of the Irish Sports Council and is managed by Roscommon County Council, Roscommon Integrated Development Company and the Suck Valley Committee.</p><br>
<p>The Broad River is a principal tributary of the Congaree River, about 150 miles  long, in western North Carolina and northern South Carolina in the United States. Via the Congaree, it is part of the watershed of the Santee River, which flows to the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The Broad River originates in the Blue Ridge Mountains of eastern Buncombe County, North Carolina and flows generally south-southeastwardly, through or along the boundaries of Rutherford, Polk and Cleveland Counties in North Carolina; and Cherokee, York, Union, Chester, Fairfield, Newberry and Richland Counties in South Carolina. In North Carolina, the river is dammed to form Lake Lure; in South Carolina it passes through the Sumter National Forest and the communities of Cherokee Falls and Lockhart before joining the Saluda River to form the Congaree River in the city of Columbia.</p><br>
<p>Principal tributaries of the Broad River include the Green, Second Broad and First Broad Rivers in North Carolina; and the Bowens, Pacolet, Sandy, Tyger, Enoree and Little Rivers in South Carolina.</p><br>
<h2>Dams</h2><br>
<p>This is an incomplete list of dams starting at Lake Lure and moving downstream</p><br>
<p>North Carolina</p><br>
<p>Lake Lure</p><br>
<p>Cliffside Steam Station (Duke Energy) on the Border of Rutherford and Cleveland Counties.</p><br>
<p>South Carolina</p><br>
<p>Gaston Shoals Dam (Gaffney)</p><br>
<p>Cherokee Falls</p><br>
<p>Ninety Nine Islands Dam adjacent to the abandoned Cherokee Nuclear Power Plant</p><br>
<p>Dam and canal at Lockhart</p><br>
<p>Neal Shoals Dam</p><br>
<p>Parr Shoals Dam forming Parr Reservoir</p><br>
<p>Columbia Canal and Dam in Columbia</p><br>
<h2>Crossings</h2><br>
<p>The Broad River is crossed several times by many highways (Note: this list at times may be incomplete)</p><br>
<p>North Carolina</p><br>
<p>Rutherford County</p><br>
<p>Grays Road</p><br>
<p>Union Road</p><br>
<p>Poors Ford Road</p><br>
<p>Big Island Road</p><br>
<p>Jack McKinney Road</p><br>
<p>Cleveland County</p><br>
<p>South Carolina</p><br>
<p>Gaffney/Cherokee County</p><br>
<p>Chester and Union Counties</p><br>
<p>in Lockhart</p><br>
<p>in Carlisle</p><br>
<p>Fairfield and Newberry Counties</p><br>
<p>in Peak</p><br>
<p>Columbia</p><br>
<h2>Variant names</h2><br>
<p>According to the Geographic Names Information System, the Broad River has also been known as</p><br>
<p>Eswa Huppeday</p><br>
<p>Eswawpuddenah</p><br>
<p>Line River</p><br>
<p>Main Broad River</p><br>
<p>Eswan Happedaw</p><br>
<p>It was also known in colonial times as the English Broad River to distinguish it from the French Broad River which also originates in western North Carolina, but flows northwest into what was then part of the claimed territory of New France.</p><br>
<p>The present name is descriptive of the river&#39;s width.</p><br>
<p>The River Llynfi, otherwise referred to as the Llynfi River or Afon Llynfi in Welsh, is one of three main tributaries of the River Ogmore or Afon Ogwr.</p><br>
<p>It runs for around 10 miles from its source north of Maesteg and flows generally southwards through the Llynfi Valley to the confluence with the River Ogmore (Afon Ogwr) and the River Garw at Aberkenfig (Abercynffig). Its main tributaries are Nant Cwm-du and Nant Cedfyw which enter on its left bank and Nant Crynwydd, Nant Sychbant and Nant y Gadlys on its right bank.</p><br>
<p>The Llynfi has endured a long period of industrialisation and coal mining especially around Maesteg. There was an ironworks and brick works at Tondu.</p><br>
<p>Industrialisation and poor provision of sewerage led to severe water pollution of the river. In the second half of the 20th century, whilst the impact of coal mining diminished, new industries such as cosmetics and toiletries, paper making and sewage disposal continued to maintain the Llynfi in an almost abiotic condition. Strong enforcement action against a number of industries helped to ensure a steady improvement in quality into the 21st century.</p><br>
<p>Map sources for: on Mynydd Caerau and with the Ogmore.</p><br>
<p>The River Garw  runs for about 12 miles from its source in the hills north of Blaengarw to the confluence with the River Ogmore and the River Llynfi at Aberkenfig. It is one of three main tributaries of the River Ogmore which runs through the town of Bridgend. It is in Wales, United Kingdom.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>Originating in Blaengarw, it passes through the villages of Pontycymer, Pantygog, Lluest/Braichycymer, Tylagwyn, Llangeinor, Abergarw and finally the village of Brynmenyn, where it joins the River Ogmore.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>With most of the River Garw&#39;s course running along the floor of the river valley to which its name is given, it collects a number of tributary streams along the way. These streams are listed in order of confluence with the river from its uppermost point to its confluence with the River Ogmore.</p><br>
<p>Nant Cwm Gwyn</p><br>
<p>Ffynon Daren Goch</p><br>
<p>Nant Cwm gweinen</p><br>
<p>Cwm Nant Hir</p><br>
<p>Nant Gelli Wern: This brook is best known in the local area for its small waterfall and now defunct reservoir above Pontycymers playing fields above Waun Bant.</p><br>
<p>Nant Forch Wen: This brook is known in the local area mainly for both its longstanding crossing point at Forch Las consisting of two railway sleepers stretching between its banks alongside a ford that leads between Forch Las and the highest area of Pantygog, and for the fact that it once filled the village of Pontycymer&#39;s own swimming baths (since demolished) which were closed in the 1970s to 1980s due to the polio scare of that time.</p><br>
<p>Nant Garw Fechan: Best known for the minor valley to which it gives its name. This valley and its river now form a picturesque nature reserve above the village of Braichycymer</p><br>
<p>Nant Lwyn cria</p><br>
<p>Nant Y Cwrdu</p><br>
<p>Nant Felin arw</p><br>
<p>Cae Garw Drehir</p><br>
<h2>Industrial Effects</h2><br>
<p>The effects of coal mining in the valley, both from small family owned shafts and major pits alike, caused the river to become polluted and dirty with coal dust and other chemicals to the point at which it was once entirely black in colour, earning it the mainly local nickname of the "Black River".</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The River Garw once contained Salmon amongst other fish. Industrialisation of the valley resulted in their loss, but they are slowly being re-introduced as part of the valley&#39;s regeneration, after the closure of the coal mines in the 1980s and the recovery of the now useful shale through a brief period of restorative opencast mining in the 1990s.</p><br>
<p>It also runs through Bryngarw Country Park - a managed and publicly owned estate and nature reserve, where many types of birds can occasionally be seen.</p><br>
<h2>Flood Risks</h2><br>
<p>During periods of prolonged heavy rain, the River Garw quite commonly bursts its shallow banks, causing minor flooding in all villages along its length. As the villages are mostly up on the valley sides, this doesnt have any significant effect, save for a few places; a house that once stood next to what is now a small footbridge across the river near the childrens playground on the valley floor at Pantygog was demolished some years ago due to constant flooding from the river. The river has also been known to flood the playground area at Braichycymmer, and sometimes becomes hazardous near the Llangeinor playing fields/railway crossing, and in the lower regions of Bryngarw Country Park (where it has become less of a problem due to the deepening off the river bed to these ends). Its tributary streams, one of which joins at the boundary of Pontycymer and Pantygog, can turn from mere babbling brooks to raging torrents in a matter of a few minutes, and it is not unknown for this to occur very suddenly.</p><br>
<p>St. Matthew Island is a remote island in the Bering Sea in Alaska, 295 km WNW of Nunivak Island. The island has a land area of 137.857 square miles, making it the 43rd largest island in the United States. Its most southerly point is Cape Upright which features cliff faces which exceed 1,000 ft. Similar heights are found at Glory of Russia Cape on the north, and the highest point, 1,476 ft above sea level, lies south from the island center.</p><br>
<p>There is a small island off its northwestern point called Hall Island. The 3.1 mi wide sound between both islands is called Sarichef Strait. A small rocky islet called Pinnacle Rock lies 9.3 mi to the south of Saint Matthew Island. The entire island&#39;s natural scenery and wildlife is protected as it is part of the Bering Sea unit of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge.</p><br>
<p>The United States Coast Guard maintained a manned LORAN station on the island during the 1940s.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and climate</h2><br>
<p>The climatic conditions in the entire Bering Sea Area, according to National Climatic Data Center (1986) is reported as maritime with "considerable wind and cool, humid and cloudy conditions" with mean annual temperature of 3.2 &deg;C and annual precipitation of 389 mm, in the St Mathews Island. The geological formation recorded in St. Mathew Island consists of calc-alkaline volcanic rocks of Late Cretaceous and earliest tertiary age with Pergelic Cryaquolls and Pergelic Cryoborolls soil types.</p><br>
<h2>Human habitation</h2><br>
<p>In prehistory, the island was inhabited by members of the Aleut tribe. The first recorded attempt at settlement occurred in 1809, when a Russian group led by Demid Ilyich Kulikalov, under the guise of the Russian-American Company, established an experimental outpost.</p><br>
<p>A 2013 sailing expedition to the island showed that, in spite of the lack of human habitation, extensive areas of beach were heavily contaminated with plastic marine debris, particularly from the fishing industry.</p><br>
<h2>Mammals</h2><br>
<p>Presently, Arctic foxes and insular voles are the only mammals resident on the island, though polar bears occasionally visit via pack ice. Notably, St. Matthew Island represents the southern limit of the range of polar bears in the Bering Sea.</p><br>
<p>In 1944, 29 reindeer were introduced to the island by the United States Coast Guard to provide an emergency food source. The Coast Guard abandoned the island a few years later, leaving the reindeer. Subsequently, the reindeer population rose to about 6,000 by 1963 and then died off in the next two years to 42 animals. A scientific study attributed the population crash to the limited food supply in interaction with climatic factors (the winter of 1963–64 was exceptionally severe in the region). By the 1980s, the reindeer population had completely died out. Environmentalists see this as an issue of overpopulation. For example, ecologist Garrett Hardin cited the "natural experiment" of St. Matthew Island of the reindeer population explosion and collapse as a paradigmatic example of the consequences of overpopulation in his essay An Ecolate View of the Human Predicament.</p><br>
<h2>Fish</h2><br>
<p>There are two major lakes on the island, North Lake and Big Lake. The lakes contain a greater number of fish species (at least 5) than other nearby islands.</p><br>
<h2>Lichen</h2><br>
<p>Lichen studies were conducted on the island in the 1990s to prepare a list of lichens with their habitat, composition and distribution pattern. These studies were considered important for characterizing the eating habits of caribou and air quality. The vegetation of the islands has been classified as wet, moist and alpine tundra, based on landforms and drainage patterns. The plant communities were attributed to five categories. In the area of rock rubble fields and high ridges the vegetation was mainly crustacean lichens. Among the 148 lichen species of the islands, 125 showed the Arctic–alpine geographic distribution, 74 boreal, 18 were coastal, 9 amphi-Berengian and 41 widespread, with many species falling into more than one category. The lichen diversity was characterized by wide-ranging Arctic–alpine and boreal species; it was evaluated as luxuriant that was linked to reindeer species disappearing from the area.</p><br>
<p>Lewesdon Hill is a hill, 279 m high, in west Dorset, England. It is the highest point in Dorset.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Location</h3><br>
<p>Lewesdon Hill stands about 4 km west of Beaminster, 1½ km south of Broadwindsor,</p><br>
<p>1½ km west-northwest of Stoke Abbott and 3 km east of another hillfort-topped eminence, Pilsdon Pen. To the south of the hill is the Marshwood Vale and to the north is the valley of the River Axe.</p><br>
<h3>Summit</h3><br>
<p>Lewesdon is the county top of Dorset. Its summit is an elongated ridge surrounded by beech woods. The actual summit is a low grassy mound at the east end of the ridge. For many years, nearby Pilsdon Pen (277 m) was thought to be Dorsets highest hill, until modern survey revealed that Lewesdon Hill was 2 metres higher. Dorsets third highest point is Bulbarrow Hill (274 m). Lewesdon&#39;s topographic prominence of 185 metres qualifies it as a Marilyn.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The hill is formed from upper greensand which is more resistant to erosion than the surrounding clay.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Like many of the high hills in Dorset, including its neighbour Pilsdon Pen, it is the site of an Iron Age hill fort. Parts of the original bank and ditch are still visible although they have been disturbed by gravel quarrying and timber removal.</p><br>
<p>Lewesdon was also the site of one of the Armada Beacons in 1588 used to warn of impending attack by Spain.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>It is a National Trust property. There are two main footpaths leading up to the summit, one from the village of Broadwindsor, and one from Coombe Lane (off the B3162 between Broadwindsor and Bridport, just before the Four Ash crossroads). The Coombe Lane footpath leads to the hill via another, smaller hill, Crabb&#39;s Hill, which is privately owned. The east-west footpath is part of the Wessex Ridgeway.</p><br>
<p>The Quincy Mine is an extensive set of copper mines located near Hancock, Michigan. The mine was owned by the Quincy Mining Company and operated between 1846 and 1945, although some activities continued through the 1970s. The Quincy Mine was known as "Old Reliable," as the Quincy Mine Company paid a dividend to investors every year from 1868 through 1920. The Quincy Mining Company Historic District is a United States National Historic Landmark District; the Quincy Dredge Number Two, and the Quincy Smelter are also historically significant.</p><br>
<h2>Lifespan: 1846-1945</h2><br>
<p>The Quincy Mine was founded in 1846 by the merger of the Northwest Mining Company and the Portage Mining Company. Due to poor communication between government offices, these two speculative mining companies had purchased the same tracts of land during the mining rush of the early 1840s. The directors met and decided to merge, with significant investment coming from Massachusetts (the town of Quincy, Massachusetts lent the mine its name). While many other copper mines were founded at the same time, the Quincy Mine became the most successful of the 1840s-era mines, and was the country&#39;s leading copper-producing mine from 1863 (when it exceeded the production of the Minesota Mine) through 1867 (after which it was exceeded by the Calumet and Hecla).</p><br>
<p>The mine was the first Michigan copper mine to switch from fissure mining to amygdaloid mining, when the recently discovered Pewabic amygdaloid lode was found to cross Quincy property in 1856. High-grade fissure veins contained large, pure masses of copper, but the masses could take days or even months to extract, at high cost. Amygdaloid mining consisted of extracting lower-grade strataform orebodies in the "amygdaloid zones," the upper portions of basalt lava flows. Rock bearing small pockets of copper could be blasted out immediately and processed elsewhere at much lower cost. Amygdaloid mining proved much more productive than fissure mining, and the size and richness of the Pewabic lode in particular allowed the Quincy to produce profits for 53 consecutive years. The Quincy company expanded laterally along the lode by buying out adjacent properties. The company bought the Pewabic mine in 1891, the Mesnard and the Pontiac in 1897, and the Franklin mine in 1908. This helped the mine survive longer than almost all other Keweenaw copper mining companies, except the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company and the Copper Range Company.</p><br>
<p>To attract a better class of worker, the Quincy Mining Company built and maintained housing for the workers. Over the course of operations, the types of housing ranged from simple tents in the early days, to complete three story houses shortly before the mines shutdown. The executives on the east coast wanted to build more elaborate and fancy homes with amenities such as electricity and running water. However, the on-site managers didnt think it was necessary for the miners to have such high-class dwellings. But the east coast executives realized that if they offered nicer homes to the workers, the miners were more likely to stay, raise families, and be less likely to leave the area or transfer to another mining company. This strategy proved effective and helped the Quincy Mining Company retain its status as one of the premier mining companies in the region.</p><br>
<p>The Quincy Mining Company closed operations (but did not dissolve) in 1931 due to low copper prices. During World War II, the mines re-opened due to increased copper demand. When the government stopped supporting copper prices after the war, the mines quickly closed for good.</p><br>
<h2>The mine's engineering achievements</h2><br>
<p>When the mine ceased production in 1945, the Quincy Number 2 shaft was the world&#39;s longest mine shaft, at 9,260 feet (2.82 km or 1.75 miles) along the dip of the deposit on a 55 degree decline. (measured vertically from the shaft collar, the depth is 6,200 feet.)Arthur Buisson, "Deep level mining problems,"</p><br>
<p>Canadian Mining Journal, Nov. 1951, v.74 n.11 p.C 60. To raise and lower ore and workers into this shaft, the world&#39;s largest steam-driven mine hoist was built in 1918 and housed in the Quincy Number 2 Hoist House. The Nordberg Steam Hoist and its reinforced concrete building, built in the Georgian architectural style with brick veneer and Italian-tiled walls, cost over $370,000 in 1918 but was used for only eleven years until it ceased usage in 1929. Weighing more than 880 tons, it lifted 10 tons of ore at 36.4 miles per hour, thus saving $16,080 in fuel bills in its first year of operation. The hoist sat on the largest concrete slab ever poured, containing 3200 cu. yards of concrete and over 8 tons of reinforcement material. The Number 2 Hoist House was built as a reinforced concrete structure on a scale rare for 1918, making it one of the first of its kind The very decorative Hoist House was used as a showpiece for visiting investors.</p><br>
<h2>The Mine Today</h2><br>
<p>The Quincy Mine is now a popular Keweenaw tourist attraction. The Quincy Mine Hoist Association maintains the buildings and grounds, and provides guided tours of the Number 2 Hoist House and the 7th level of the mine during the summer. Tourists are transported to the 7th level by the Quincy and Torch Lake Cog Railway. There are museum-style exhibits within many buildings. The mine and surrounding areas are part of Keweenaw National Historical Park.</p><br>
<p>The Number 6 Shaft House (no longer standing) is often pictured in photographs as a picturesque example of shaft house architecture.</p><br>
<p>On December 6, 2008 Michigan Tech Associate Professor William J. Gregg was installing emergency ladders in the mine shaft at the Number 2 Shaft House when he fell 225 feet and landed on an object and was declared dead at the scene by a paramedic who was lowered down to his location.</p><br>
<p>The shafts and stopes of the Quincy Mine have slowly filled with groundwater since the closing of the mine. The water has currently filled the mine up to the seventh level, making all lower levels inaccessible. The seventh level is drained by a large adit, which is the mine tour entrance. The adit, originally five feet high and three feet wide when it was constructed in 1892, was enlarged by Michigan Tech in the 1970s for a mining study.</p><br>
<p>Bass Lake is located in the Sierra National Forest, of Madera County, California, approximately 14 mi south of the entrance to Yosemite National Park. The lake is approximately four miles long and one-half mile wide.</p><br>
<p>The lake is formed by the construction of the Crane Valley Dam across Willow Creek, a tributary to the San Joaquin River, and is referenced as Crane Valley Lake. Releases from the dam drive the hydro-electric powerplant operated by Pacific Gas and Electric Company. The 145 ft concrete gravity dam was completed in 1910 by Pacific Gas and Electric.</p><br>
<p>Most of the land around the lake is part of the Sierra National Forest. The USA Forest Service designated the lake an official Recreation Area and has developed campgrounds and picnic areas on the south shore of the lake. The north shore of the lake is primarily made up of private cabins and homes of the unincorporated community, Bass Lake, California, with a year-round population of 2,195.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Much of the area surrounding Bass Lake is devoted to the tourism industry. The south entrance to Yosemite National Park is only fourteen miles away. The lake water typically reaches 80 &deg;F during the summer months. Fishing, swimming, water skiing, and personal watercrafting are popular.</p><br>
<h2>Hells Angels</h2><br>
<p>In 1963, Bass Lake became a yearly destination for the Hells Angels Motorcycle Club (HAMC), attracting hundreds of bikers from across the state. A first-hand report of the 1965 Bass Lake Run was reported by Hunter S. Thompson in his first book, Hells Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga.</p><br>
<p>Most locals viewed the run as an annual menace that brought crime and frightened tourists away. Each year roadblocks, curfews, and campground restrictions were enforced by law enforcement from throughout Madera County and its surrounding areas in an effort to block, or at least control, the Hells Angels activity.</p><br>
<p>The run peaked in the 1970s before slowly fading away altogether by the late 1980s.</p><br>
<p>The Giza pyramid complex  is an archaeological site on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt.</p><br>
<p>This complex of ancient monuments includes the three pyramid complexes known as the Great Pyramids, the massive sculpture known as the Great Sphinx, several cemeteries, a workers&#39; village and an industrial complex. It is located in the Libyan Desert, approximately 9 km (5 mi) west of the Nile river at the old town of Giza, and about 13 km (8 mi) southwest of Cairo city centre.</p><br>
<p>The pyramids, which have historically loomed large as emblems of ancient Egypt in the Western imagination, were popularised in Hellenistic times, when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It is by far the oldest of the ancient Wonders and the only one still in existence.</p><br>
<h2>Pyramids and Sphinx</h2><br>
<p>The Pyramids of Giza consist of the Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu and constructed c. 2560–2540 BC), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Chephren) a few hundred meters to the south-west, and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinos) a few hundred meters farther south-west. The Great Sphinx lies on the east side of the complex. Current consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of Khafre. Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways and valley pyramids.</p><br>
<h3>Khufu's pyramid complex</h3><br>
<p>Khufu’s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, now buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; basalt paving and nummulitic limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated. The valley temple was connected to a causeway which was largely destroyed when the village was constructed. The causeway led to the Mortuary Temple of Khufu. From this temple the basalt pavement is the only thing that remains. The mortuary temple was connected to the king’s pyramid. The king’s pyramid has three smaller queen’s pyramids associated with it and five boat pits. The boat pits contained a ship, and the 2 pits on the south side of the pyramid still contained intact ships. One of these ships has been restored and is on display.</p><br>
<p>Khufu&#39;s pyramid still has a limited collection of casing stones at its base. These casing stones were made of fine white limestone quarried from the nearby range.</p><br>
<h3>Khafre's pyramid complex</h3><br>
<p>Khafre’s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, the Sphinx temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple and the king’s pyramid. The valley temple yielded several statues of Khafre. Several were found in a well in the floor of the temple by Mariette in 1860. Others were found during successive excavations by Sieglin (1909–10), Junker, Reisner, and Hassan. Khafre’s complex contained five boat-pits and a subsidiary pyramid with a serdab.</p><br>
<p>Khafres pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu Pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction—it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. Khafres pyramid retains a prominent display of casing stones at its apex.</p><br>
<h3>Menkaure's pyramid complex</h3><br>
<p>Menkaure’s pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king’s pyramid. The valley temple once contained several statues of Menkaure. During the 5th dynasty, a smaller ante-temple was added on to the valley temple. The mortuary temple also yielded several statues of Menkaure. The king’s pyramid has three subsidiary or queen’s pyramids.</p><br>
<p>Of the four major monuments, only Menkaure&#39;s pyramid is seen today without any of its original polished limestone casing.</p><br>
<h3>Sphinx</h3><br>
<p>The Sphinx dates from the reign of king Khafre. During the New Kingdom, Amenhotep II dedicated a new temple to Hauron-Haremakhet and this structure was added onto by later rulers.</p><br>
<h3>Tomb of Queen Khentkaus I</h3><br>
<p>Khentkaus I was buried in Giza. Her tomb is known as LG 100 and G 8400 and is located in the Central Field, near the valley temple of Menkaure. The pyramid complex of Queen Khentkaus includes: her pyramid, a boat pit, a valley temple and a pyramid town.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Most construction theories are based on the idea that the pyramids were built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. The disagreements center on the method by which the stones were conveyed and placed and how possible the method was.</p><br>
<p>In building the pyramids, the architects might have developed their techniques over time. They would select a site on a relatively flat area of bedrock—not sand—which provided a stable foundation. After carefully surveying the site and laying down the first level of stones, they constructed the pyramids in horizontal levels, one on top of the other.</p><br>
<p>For the Great Pyramid of Giza, most of the stone for the interior seems to have been quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried across the Nile. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Only a few exterior blocks remain in place at the bottom of the Great Pyramid. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), people may have taken the rest away for building projects in the city of Cairo.</p><br>
<p>To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers might have marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. During construction, the outer surface of the stone was smooth limestone; excess stone has eroded as time has passed.</p><br>
<h3>Purpose</h3><br>
<p>The pyramids of Giza and others are thought to have been constructed to house the remains of the deceased Pharaohs who ruled over Ancient Egypt. A portion of the Pharaohs spirit called his ka was believed to remain with his corpse. Proper care of the remains was necessary in order for the "former Pharaoh to perform his new duties as king of the dead." Its theorized the pyramid not only served as a tomb for the Pharaoh, but also as a storage pit for various items he would need in the afterlife. "The people of Ancient Egypt believed that death on Earth was the start of a journey to the next world. The embalmed body of the King was entombed underneath or within the pyramid to protect it and allow his transformation and ascension to the afterlife."</p><br>
<h2>Workers' village</h2><br>
<p>The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids might have been accomplished by several thousand skilled workers, unskilled laborers and supporting workers. Bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others were also needed for the project. Along with the methods utilized to construct the pyramids, there is also wide speculation regarding the exact number of workers needed for a building project of this magnitude. When Greek historian Herodotus visited Giza in 450 BC, he was told by Egyptian priests that "the Great Pyramid had taken 400,000 men 20 years to build, working in three-month shifts 100,000 men at a time." Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid.</p><br>
<p>The Giza pyramid complex is surrounded by a large stone wall, outside which Mark Lehner and his team discovered a town where the pyramid workers were housed. The village is located to the southeast of the Khafre and Menkaure complexes. Among the discoveries at the workers village are communal sleeping quarters, bakeries, breweries, and kitchens (with evidence showing that bread, beef, and fish were staples of the diet), a hospital and a cemetery (where some of the skeletons were found with signs of trauma associated with accidents on a building site). The workers town appears to date from the middle 4th dynasty (2520–2472 BC), after the accepted time of Khufu and completion of the Great Pyramid. According to Lehner and the AERA team</p><br>
<p>Without carbon dating, using only pottery shards, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to date the site, the team further concludes</p><br>
<h2>Cemeteries</h2><br>
<p>As the pyramids were constructed, the mastabas for lesser royals were constructed around them. Near the pyramid of Khufu, the main cemetery is G 7000 which lies in the East Field located to the east of the main pyramid and next to the Queen’s pyramids. These cemeteries around the pyramids were arranged along streets and avenues. Cemetery G 7000 was one of the earliest and contained tombs of wives, sons and daughters of these 4th dynasty rulers. On the other side of the pyramid in the West Field, the royals sons Wepemnofret and Hemiunu were buried in Cemetery G 1200 and Cemetery G 4000 respectively. These cemeteries were further expanded during the 5th and 6th dynasty.</p><br>
<h3>West Field</h3><br>
<p>The West Field is located to the west of Khufu’s pyramid. It is divided into smaller areas such as the cemeteries referred to as the Abu Bakr Excavations (1949–50, 1950–1,1952 and 1953), and several cemeteries named based on the mastaba numbers such as Cemetery G 1000, Cemetery G 1100, etc. The West Field contains Cemetery G1000 – Cemetery G1600, and Cemetery G 1900. Further cemeteries in this field are: Cemeteries G 2000, G 2200, G 2500, G 3000, G 4000, and G 6000. Three other cemeteries are named after their excavators: Junker Cemetery West, Junker Cemetery East and Steindorff Cemetery.</p><br>
<h3>East Field</h3><br>
<p>The East Field is located to the east of Khufu’s pyramid and contains cemetery G 7000. This cemetery was a burial place for some of the family members of Khufu.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery also includes mastabas from tenants and priests of the pyramids dated to the 5th dynasty and 6th dynasty.</p><br>
<h3>Cemetery GIS</h3><br>
<p>This cemetery dates from the time of Menkaure (Junker) or earlier (Reisner), and contains several stone-built mastabas dating from as late as the 6th dynasty. Tombs from the time of Menkaure include the mastabas of the royal chamberlain Khaemnefert, the King’s son Khufudjedef was master of the royal largesse, and an official named Niankhre.</p><br>
<h3>Central Field</h3><br>
<p>The Central Field contains several burials of royal family members. The tombs range in date from the end of the 4th dynasty to the 5th dynasty or even later.</p><br>
<p>Tombs dating from the Saite and later period were found near the causeway of Khafre and the Great Sphinx. These tombs include the tomb of a commander of the army named Ahmose and his mother Queen Nakhtubasterau, who was the wife of Pharaoh Amasis II.</p><br>
<h3>South Field</h3><br>
<p>The South Field includes some mastabas dating from the 2nd dynasty and 3rd dynasty. One of these early dynastic tombs is referred to as the Covington tomb. Other tombs date from the late Old Kingdom (5th and 6th dynasty).</p><br>
<p>The south section of the field contains several tombs dating from the Saite period and later.</p><br>
<h3>Tombs of the pyramid builders</h3><br>
<p>In 1990, tombs belonging to the pyramid workers were discovered alongside the pyramids with an additional burial site found nearby in 2009. Although not mummified, they had been buried in mud-brick tombs with beer and bread to support them in the afterlife. The tombs&#39; proximity to the pyramids and the manner of burial supports the theory that they were paid laborers who took great pride in their work and were not slaves, as was previously thought. The commonly held belief of slaves building the pyramids was likely to have been popularized by Hollywood films based on the original archaeological and anthropological opinion that they could not have been built without forced labor. Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid. Most of the workers appear to have come from poor families. Farms supplied the laborers with 21 cattle and 23 sheep daily. Specialists such as architects, masons, metalworkers and carpenters, were permanently employed by the king to fill positions that required the most skill.</p><br>
<h2>New Kingdom</h2><br>
<p>During the New Kingdom, Giza was still an active site. A brick-built chapel was constructed near the Sphinx during the early 18th dynasty, probably by King Thutmose I. Amenhotep II built a temple dedicated to Hauron-Haremakhet near the Sphinx. Pharaoh Thutmose IV visited the pyramids and the Sphinx as a prince and in a dream was told that clearing the sand from the Sphinx would be rewarded with kingship. This event is recorded in the Dream stela. During the early years of his reign, Thutmose IV together with his wife Queen Nefertari had stelae erected at Giza. Pharaoh Tutankhamun had a structure built, which is now referred to as the king&#39;s resthouse.</p><br>
<p>During the 19th dynasty, Seti I added to the temple of Hauron-Haremakhet, and his son Ramesses II erected a stela in the chapel before the Sphinx and usurped the resthouse of Tutankhamun.</p><br>
<h2>Late Period</h2><br>
<p>During the 21st dynasty, the Temple of Isis Mistress-of-the-Pyramids was reconstructed. During the 26th dynasty, a stela made in this time mentions Khufu and his Queen Henutsen.</p><br>
<h2>Astronomy</h2><br>
<p>The sides of all three of the Giza pyramids were astronomically oriented to the north-south and east-west within a small fraction of a degree. Among recent attempts to explain such a clearly deliberate pattern are those of S. Haack, O. Neugebauer, K. Spence, D. Rawlins, K. Pickering, and J. Belmonte. The arrangement of the pyramids is a representation of the Orion constellation according to the disputed Orion Correlation Theory.</p><br>
<p>Coast Guard Base Kodiak is a major shore installation of the United States Coast Guard, located in Kodiak, Alaska. The largest tenant unit on the base is Air Station Kodiak. It is also the home port for several cutters. Historic elements that it includes are the Kodiak Naval Operating Base, Fort Greely, and Fort Abercrombie.</p><br>
<p>The station is the subject of the series Coast Guard Alaska on The Weather Channel and is prominently featured in the 2006 film The Guardian and is frequently referenced in the Discovery Channel series Deadliest Catch.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The base began as the United States Navys Naval Air Station Kodiak on 15 June 1941. Built between 1939 and 1944, the Kodiak facilities served as the main forward operating base for the defense of Alaska, and for operations in 1942-43 Aleutians campaign in the Second World War. Fort Greely, a United States Army facility located in the Buskin River area, housed the forces that operated the islands defenses. Artillery emplacements survive on Buskin Hill, Artillery Hill, and at Fort Abercrombie (now a state park), but little remains of Fort Greely&#39;s barracks. The World War II facilities included an airfield with numerous hangars, a seaplane base for a fleet of Consolidated PBY Catalinas, and a submarine base.</p><br>
<p>On 17 April 1947 the Coast Guard Air Station was commissioned as an Air Detachment at the navy base with one PBY Catalina aircraft, seven pilots, and thirty crewmen. On 25 April 1972 the order establishing Coast Guard Base Kodiak and CG RADSTA Kodiak was issued by the Commandant of the CG. CG Air Station Kodiak was already operating with three HC-130H airplanes and two HH-52A helicopters. Today, CG Air Station Kodiak operates five HC-130H aircraft, five MH-60T Jayhawk helicopters, and five HH-65C Dolphin helicopters.</p><br>
<p>Kodiak Naval Operating Base, Fort Greely, and Fort Abercrombie were together listed on the National Register of Historic Places and also declared to be a National Historic Landmark in 1985 for the role the facilities played in World War II.</p><br>
<h3>2012 Shooting</h3><br>
<p>On April 12, 2012, two Coast Guard members were found fatally shot at their work stations in one of the communications buildings on-base. After an investigation conducted by the FBI, Coast Guard Investigative Service, and Alaska State Troopers, the prime suspect (James Michael “Jim” Wells) was arrested.</p><br>
<h2>Homeported cutters</h2><br>
<p>USCGC Munro (WHEC-724)</p><br>
<p>USCGC Alex Haley (WMEC-39)</p><br>
<p>USCGC Spar (WLB-206)</p><br>
<p>Mount Hudson  is a stratovolcano in southern Chile, and the site of one of the largest eruptions in the twentieth century. The mountain itself is covered by a glacier. There is a caldera at the summit from an ancient eruption; modern volcanic activity comes from inside the caldera. Mount Hudson is named after Francisco Hudson, a 19th-century Chilean Navy hydrographer.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>Large eruptions around 4750 BCE and 1890 BCE are believed to have been of Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) 6; these are probably responsible for the large caldera. The 4750 BCE eruption may have wiped out many if not all groups of early man living in central Patagonia at that time, based on evidence from the Los Toldos archaeological site. Recently, the volcano has had moderate eruptions in 1891 and 1971 as well as a large eruption in 1991.</p><br>
<h3>1971 eruption</h3><br>
<p>Before 1970, little was known about the mountain. Minor eruptive activity began in 1970 and melted parts of the glacier, raising river water levels and leading to the identification of the caldera. In August–September 1971, a moderate eruption (VEI 3) located in the northwest area of the caldera sent ash into the air and caused lahars from the melting of a large portion of the glacier. The lahars killed five people; many more were evacuated.</p><br>
<h3>1991 eruption</h3><br>
<p>The eruption in August to October 1991 was a large plinian eruption with a VEI of 5, that ejected 4.3 km bulk volume (2.7 cubic km of dense rock equivalent material). Parts of the glacier melted and ran down the mountain as mud flows (see glacier run). Due to the remoteness of the area, no humans were killed but hundreds of people were evacuated from the vicinity. Ash fell on Chile and Argentina as well as in the South Atlantic Ocean and on the Falkland Islands. In 1992, John Locke Blake, then resident on Estancia Condor, south of Rio Gallegos in Argentina describes the effects of the eruption vividly. He describes an ash fall up to 15 cm in depth, covering some 150,000 to 180,000 square kilometres in a triangle from Los Antiguos to Deseado to San Julian to a depth of between 5 and 10 cm. He reports that the hygroscopicity of the silica caused the formation of morasses around drinking places causing sheep to be trapped and die in huge numbers. He records that ten years later, most of the farms in the affected area are empty, of sheep and of people.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the ash, a large amount of sulfur dioxide gas and aerosols were ejected in the eruption. These contributed to those already in the atmosphere from the even larger Mount Pinatubo eruption earlier in the year and helped cause a worldwide cooling effect over the following years. Ozone was also depleted, with the Antarctic ozone hole growing to its largest levels ever recorded in 1992 and 1993.</p><br>
<p>As a result of the Pinatubo eruption, the Hudson eruption received little attention at the time.</p><br>
<h3>October–November 2011 eruption</h3><br>
<p>On October 26, the Chilean Service for Geology and Minery issued a red alert and a mass evacuation of the region surrounding the volcano, fearing an imminent eruption in the coming hours or days. It happened on Oct 31 but was small and made damage to the area.</p><br>
<p>The Sikhote-Alin  is a mountain range in Primorsky and Khabarovsk Krais, Russia, extending about 900 km to the northeast of the Russian Pacific seaport of Vladivostok. The highest summits are Tordoki Yani at 2,077 m above sea level, Ko Mountain  in Khabarovsk Krai and Anik Mountain  in Primorsky Krai.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Although Sikhote-Alin is a temperate zone, species typical of northern taiga (such as reindeer and the Ussuri brown bear) coexist with tropical species, the leopard, tiger and Asiatic black bear. The region holds very few wolves, due to competition with tigers. The oldest tree in the region is a millennium-old Japanese yew.</p><br>
<p>Nature Monument "Sikhote - Alin". Center for Wildlife Rehabilitation "UTES"</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the 1910s and 1920s, Sikhote-Alin was extensively explored by Vladimir Arsenyev (1872&ndash;1930) who described his adventures in several books, notably Dersu Uzala (1923), which in 1975 was turned into an Oscar-winning film by Akira Kurosawa. The large Sikhote-Alin and Lazo wildlife refuges were set up in 1935 to preserve the region&#39;s unusual wildlife.</p><br>
<p>On February 12, 1947, one of the largest meteor showers in recent history occurred in the Sikhote-Alin mountains. The Sikhote-Alin meteorite exploded in the atmosphere as it fell, raining many tons of metal on an elliptical region about 1.3 km&sup2; in area. Craters were formed by the meteors; the largest was 26 m in diameter.</p><br>
<p>In 2001, UNESCO placed Sikhote-Alin onto the World Heritage List, citing its importance for "the survival of endangered species such as the scaly-sided (Chinese) merganser, Blakiston&#39;s fish-owl and the Amur tiger". The World Heritage site has a total area of 16,319 km&sup2, of which the terrestrial core zone of Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik comprises 3,985 km&sup2;. The core zone can only be explored in a company of rangers.</p><br>
<p>The Gauja River  is a river in Vidzeme, Latvia. It is the only large river of Latvia that begins and ends its flow in Latvia. Its length is 460 km, of which 1/5 or 93.5 km are in the Gauja National Park. In this part, the Gauja River flows through a spacious ancient Gauja valley, which is 1 to 2.5 km wide, and the maximum depth near Sigulda is 85 m.</p><br>
<p>The sandstone rocks on the banks of the Gauja and its adjoining rivers started forming 370 to 300 million years ago during the Devonian period.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Before 13th century the Gauja River used to serve as a trade route and border river between the Livonian and Latgalian lands. In some territories, they used to live mixed together. When Livonian languages were still present along the Gauja River and the sea, it used to be called Koivo (the Saint River). In Latvian, the name of the Gauja River used to mean a great amount, a crowd, and was therefore called the big river. The Livonians suffered greatly during the Great Northern War and following plague in the 18th century. That was the period when the remaining Livonians assimilated with the Latvians.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>The Gauja River tends to change its bed rapidly. Therefore, it has gained the reputation of being deceitful. The bed of the river is made of unconsolidated sand and gravel deposits that move along with the current. In some places, the bed is pebbly, thus forming impressive boulder rapids: Kazu, Raiskuma, Rakšu, and Ķūķu. The bottom of the river in Gauja National Park is 60 to 120 meters wide with a rapidly changing depth from 0.3 m to 7 m. The decline is 0.5 m/km. The speed of flow during low water is 0.2 to 0.4 m/s, and during the spring water period 2 to 3 m/s. Due to the fluctuations in water level, current speed, and special flow features, the Gauja River may be characterized as a rather non-homogeneous watercourse.</p><br>
<p>Usually the Gauja River freezes over in the mid-December, and the ice starts moving in late March. During warm winters, the river does not freeze over. Much underground water flows into the Gauja River. It therefore has a lower water temperature than other large rivers in Latvia.</p><br>
<p>Gauja panorama 16052015.jpgA panoramic view to the river Gauja, at the border between Estonia and Latvia.</p><br>
<p>The Pat-kai  or Patkai Bum meaning "to cut  chicken " in Tai-Ahom language are the hills on India&#39;s north-eastern border with Burma or Myanmar. They were created by the same tectonic processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalayas in the Mesozoic.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Patkai hill range are not as rugged as the Himalayas and the peaks are much lower in height. Features of the range include conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys.</p><br>
<p>Three mountain ranges come under the Patkai. The Patkai-Bum (Burmese Kumon Taungdan), the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia, and the Lushai Hills, highest point Phawngpui Tlang, also known as Blue Mountain. The Garo-Khasi range is in the Indian state of Meghalaya. Mawsynram and Cherrapunji, on the windward side of these hills are the world&#39;s wettest places, having the highest annual rainfall.</p><br>
<p>The climate range from temperate to alpine due to differencies in altitude.</p><br>
<p>The Pangsau Pass offers the most important route through the Patkai. The Ledo Road was built through Pangsau Pass as a strategic supply road built over the range during World War II to link India with the Burma Road into China.</p><br>
<h2>Indian states along the Patkai</h2><br>
<p>Nagaland</p><br>
<p>Manipur</p><br>
<p>Mizoram</p><br>
<p>Meghalaya</p><br>
<p>Assam</p><br>
<p>The San Andres Mountains are a mountain range in the southwestern USA state of New Mexico, in the counties of Socorro, Sierra, and Doña Ana. The range extends about 75 miles  north to south, but are only about 12 miles  wide at their widest. The highest peak in the San Andres Mountains is Salinas Peak, at 8,965 feet .</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Though nearly contiguous with the Organ Mountains to the south, the two are very distinct geologically and botanically. The Oscura Mountains to the north are separated from the San Andres Mountains by Mockingbird Gap and the much lower Little Burro Mountains. The San Andres Mountains are comparatively dry and do not support any extensive woodlands. They are mostly closed to the public, lying almost entirely within the restricted White Sands Missile Range.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The San Andres Mountains form part of the eastern edge of the rift valley of the Rio Grande, and are made up of west-dipping fault blocks made primarily of San Andres Formation limestone, but also with extensive exposures of reddish Abo Formation sandstone on the western side, and quartz monzonite on the eastern side. Gypsum deposits washed from these mountains are the main source of the dunes in White Sands National Monument.</p><br>
<p>Significant summits include:</p><br>
<h2>Desert bighorn sheep</h2><br>
<p>The biggest and best desert bighorn sheep habitat in New Mexico is in the San Andres Mountains, which can host up to 400 bighorn. An area of 57,215 acre in the southern portion of the San Andres Mountain range was set aside in 1941 as the San Andres National Wildlife Refuge to help preserve the desert bighorn sheep, which at the time numbered 33. In the mid 1970s there were around 200 sheep in the refuge; however, in 1979, a scabies mite epizootic reduced the population from 200 to 75. Subsequent years brought further declines from scabies and other causes until the population consisted of one ewe in 1997. Reintroduction of desert bighorn sheep occurred in 2002 and the herd has now about 80 members.</p><br>
<p>Seleucia, also known as Seleucia-on-Tigris or Seleucia on the Tigris, was a major Mesopotamian city of the Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian empires. It stood on the west bank of the Tigris River opposite Ctesiphon, within the present-day Babil Governorate in Iraq.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Seleucia (Σελεύκεια, Seleúkeia) is named for Seleucus I Nicator, who enlarged an earlier settlement and made it the capital of his empire around 305. It was the largest and most important of the many cities to bear its name but is sometimes distinguished as Seleucia-on-Tigris or Seleucia on the Tigris (Seleucia ad Tigridem) from the name of its river.</p><br>
<p>Texts from the Assyrian Church of the East&#39;s synods referred to the city as (ܣܠܝܩ) or some times (ܡܚܘܙ̈ܐ) when referring to the metropolis of Seleucia-Ctesiphon.</p><br>
<p>The Sassanids named the eastern city as Veh-Ardashir (ویه‌اردشیر), Arabs called it Bahurasīr.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Seleucid Empire</h3><br>
<p>Seleucia, as such, was founded in about 305 BC, when an earlier city was enlarged and dedicated as the first capital of the Seleucid Empire by Seleucus I Nicator. Seleucus was one of the Diadochi successors of Alexander the Great who, after Alexander&#39;s death, divided his empire among themselves. Although Seleucus soon moved his main capital to Antioch, in northern Syria, Seleucia became an important center of trade, Hellenistic culture, and regional government under the Seleucids. The city was populated by Greeks, Syrians and Jews. Standing at the confluence of the Tigris River with a major canal from the Euphrates, Seleucia was placed to receive traffic from both great waterways. During the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, it was one of the great Hellenistic cities, comparable to Alexandria in Egypt, and greater than Syrian Antioch. Excavations indicate that the walls of the city enclosed an area of at least 550 hectare. Based on this size, the population has been estimated to number over 100,000 initially and probably more later. Its surrounding region might have supported half a million people.</p><br>
<p>Polybius (5,52ff) uses the Macedonian peliganes for the council of Seleucia, which implies a Macedonian colony, consistent with its rise to prominence under Seleucus I; Pausanias () records that Seleucus also settled Babylonians there. Archaeological finds support the presence of a large population not of Greek culture. In 141 BC, the Parthians under Mithridates I conquered the city, and Seleucia became the western capital of the Parthian Empire. Tacitus described its walls, and mentioned that it was, even under Parthian rule, a fully Hellenistic city. Ancient texts claim that the city had 600,000 inhabitants, and was ruled by a senate of 300 people. It was clearly one of the largest cities in the Western world; only Rome, Alexandria and possibly Antioch were more populous.</p><br>
<p>In 55 BC, a battle fought near Seleucia was crucial in establishing dynastic succession of the Arsacid kings. In this battle between the reigning Mithridates III (supported by a Roman army of Aulus Gabinius, governor of Syria) and the previously deposed Orodes II, the reigning monarch was defeated, allowing Orodes to re-establish himself as king. In 41 BC, Seleucia was the scene of a massacre of around 5,000 Babylonian Jewish refugees (Josephus, Ant. xviii. 9, § 9).</p><br>
<p>In 117 AD, Seleucia was burned down by the Roman emperor Trajan during his conquest of Mesopotamia, but the following year it was ceded back to the Parthians by Trajan&#39;s successor, Hadrian, then rebuilt in the Parthian style. It was completely destroyed by the Roman general Avidius Cassius in 165.</p><br>
<h3>Sasanian rule</h3><br>
<p>Over sixty years later a new city, Veh-Ardashir, was built across the river by Persian emperor Ardashir I. This new city was long believed to be located at Seleucia but was shown by Italian excavations to be a fresh construction separate from Seleucia and Ctesiphon. There were active Christian churches in Mesopotamia from the 1st century onwards and in the 3rd or 4th century Seleucia became an important centre.</p><br>
<p>Following the edict of toleration by the Persian Sassanian King Yazdegerd I, which for the time being brought an end to the persecution of Christians, which had lasted for 70 years, the remaining Christians set about reorganizing and strengthening the church.</p><br>
<p>The Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (The Synod of Mar Isaac) met in 410 AD under the presidency of Mar Isaac, the bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. The most important decision of the Synod which had a very far reaching effect on the life of the church, was to declare the bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon as the primate of the Church of the East; and in recognition of this pre-eminence he was given the title ‘Catholicos’. The Synod confirmed Mar Isaac as Catholicos and Archbishop of all the Orient. The Synod also declared its adherence to the decision of the Council of Nicaea and subscribed to the Nicene Creed. The Canons of the Synod leave no doubt as to the authority of the great Metropolitan, the Catholicos of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Without his approval, no election of bishop would be valid.</p><br>
<p>Towards the end of the reign of Yazdegerd I, the Christians were again persecuted in AD 420. Dadyeshu was elected Catholicos in AD 421 and himself suffered during the persecution and was imprisoned. When he was released he resigned and left Seleucia, but the church refused to accept the resignation and there followed the Synod of Dadyeshu which met in AD 424 in Markabata of the Arabs under the presidency of Mar Dadyeshu. It proved to be one of the most significant of all Persian synods. The first synod of Isaac in AD 410 had decided that the Catholicos of Seleucia Ctesiphon be supreme among the bishops of the East. The Synod of Dadyeshu decided that the Catholicos should be the sole head of the Church of the East and that no ecclesiastical authority should be acknowledged above him. For the first time, this synod referred to the Catholicos as Patriarch and that their Catholicos was answerable to God alone. This had some effect in reassuring the Sasanian monarchy that the Persian Christians were not influenced by the Roman enemy.</p><br>
<p>The city eventually faded into obscurity and was swallowed by the desert sands, probably abandoned after the Tigris shifted its course.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The site of Seleucia was rediscovered in the 1920s by archaeologists looking for Opis.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in 1927, University of Michigan professors Leroy Waterman (1927–1932) and Clark Hopkins (1936–1937) oversaw excavations for the Kelsey Museum of Archaeology on behalf of the American School of Oriental Research of Baghdad with funds supplied by the Toledo Museum of Art and the Cleveland Museum of Art.</p><br>
<p>From 1964 to 1968 and then between 1985 and 1989, an Italian mission from the University of Turin directed by Antonio Invernizzi and Giorgio Gullini excavated at the site. They found a Seleucid archive building with about 30,000 seal impressions, all in a fully Greek style.</p><br>
<p>In an outer wall of the Parthian period, a reused brick dated by stamp to 821 BC, during the Neo-Assyrian period.</p><br>
<p>It appears to have incorporated both Greek and Mesopotamian architecture for the public buildings. Finds have indicated an extensive non-Greek population.</p><br>
<p>The largest mound at Seleucia is named Tell Omar (formerly Tell Umar).</p><br>
<p>Seleucia in Pieria , also known in English as Seleucia by the Sea, and later named Suedia, was a Hellenistic town, the seaport of Antioch ad Orontes , the Seleucid capital, modern Antakya . The city was built slightly to the north of the estuary of the river Orontes, between small rivers on the western slopes of the Coryphaeus, one of the southern summits of the Amanus Mountains.</p><br>
<p>According to Pausanias and Malalas, there was a previous city here named Palaeopolis ("Old City"). At present, it is located at the seaside village of Çevlik</p><br>
<p>near the town of Samandağ in the Hatay Province of Turkey. Seleucia, Apamea, Laodicea, and Antioch formed the Syrian tetrapolis.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Seleucid period</h3><br>
<p>Seleucia Pieria was founded in ca. 300 BCE by Seleucus I Nicator, one of the successors of the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great and the founder of the Seleucid Empire. Seleucia was of great importance in the struggle between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies; it was captured by Ptolemy Euergetes in 246 BCE. As the Ptolemies (Lagids) and Seleucids fought over the city, it changed hands several times until 219 BCE, when the Seleucid Antiochus III the Great recaptured it during the Fourth Syrian War (219-217 BCE). Then it obtained its freedom and kept it even to the end of the Roman occupation. It had long enjoyed the right of coinage.</p><br>
<h3>Roman period</h3><br>
<p>When the Seleucid Empire was subdued by the Armenian conqueror Tigranes II, Seleucia Pieria resisted. Roman general Pompey the Great restored the Seleucids to power by giving the city to Antiochus I Theos of Commagene, a direct descendant of Seleucus I Nicator and a loyal ally of Rome. Under light Commagene rule, Seleucia enjoyed substantial autonomy, i.e. de facto independence.</p><br>
<p>Seleucia&#39;s importance grew significantly over time, necessitating the enlargement of its harbours several times under Diocletian and Constantius. These harbours, called the "inner" and "outer" harbours, served from time to time the Roman navy.</p><br>
<p>Most buildings and structures today date from the Roman period.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine period</h3><br>
<p>During Byzantine times the city went into a steady decline. The silting up of the city&#39;s harbours hastened this process. In the fifth century CE the fight to keep them open was finally given up. It suffered severely in the devastating 526 Antioch earthquake.</p><br>
<h3>Islamic period</h3><br>
<p>Seleucia was captured by the Sasanids around 540 CE. While it never recovered as a port-city again, Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik, Ummayad Caliph from 705-715, built a fortress in the city.</p><br>
<h2>Seleucia Pieria and Christianity</h2><br>
<p>The city was Christianized early. As the port of Antioch of Syria, "Seleucia on sea"—so called to distinguish it from other cities of the same name—is most notable as the precise point of embarkation from which the Apostle Paul and Saint Barnabas sailed from this port on their first missionary journeys, as chronicled in the Bible (Acts 13:4). At the end of that same journey he must have made landfall at Seleucia before going to Antioch (see Acts 14:26). His route at the beginning of the second journey was by land and probably bypassed Seleucia (see Acts 15:40-41), though on returning, he must have passed through it again (see Acts 18:22). Once more taking a land route when setting out on his third journey, Paul may have missed Seleucia (see Acts 19:1), and at that journey&#39;s end he did not return to Antioch and so missed Seleucia again (see Acts 21:7-8). This means that Paul passed through Seleucia at least three times, and probably several more on pre-missionary visits to Antioch of Syria (see Acts 11:26; 12:25).</p><br>
<p>The oldest bishop known is Zenobius, present at the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE. Other known bishops include Eusebius, an Arian, and Bizus in the fourth century, with twelve others cited by Le Quien (Oriens Christianus, II, 777-780). In the sixth century CE the Notitia Episcopatuum of Antioch, gives Seleucia Pieria as an autocephalous archbishopric, suffragan of Antioch (Echos dOrient, X 144); the diocese existed until the tenth century CE, and its boundaries are known (Echos dOrient, X, 97). For some Roman Catholic titularies see Eubel, Hierarchia catholica medii aevi, I, 468.</p><br>
<p>Seleucia Pieria was a diocese of the Syriac Orthodox Church in the eighth and ninth centuries CE, three of whose bishops are known. The last-known Syriac Orthodox bishop of Seleucia, Ahron (847/874 CE), is mentioned in the lists of Michael the Syrian.</p><br>
<p>The city is still a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church, Seleuciensis Pierius; the seat is vacant following the death of the last bishop in 1980.</p><br>
<h2>Main Sites</h2><br>
<p>The upper city, about 13 km in circumference, is still distinguishable. The lower city, smaller than the preceding one, was more thickly populated. Ruins include a necropolis, amphitheatre, citadel, temples, some irrigation works as well as some fortifications.</p><br>
<p>The highlight of the city is a 1350-1400m long tunnel/canal complex built during Roman times. It is believed that it was dug to divert the nearby river and prevent the harbour from silting up with time. A further reason is assumed to be to help reduce flooding caused during heavy winter rains. Construction began during the reign of Emperor Vespasian (69-79 CE) continuing mainly during his son Titus&#39;s time (79-81 CE).</p><br>
<p>According to Flavius Josephus, a Roman-Jewish historian (37–ca.100 CE), Jewish slaves were used as workers. These were working under orders of Emperor Titus, who had captured Jerusalem in 70 CE. Other POWs were sent to Rome, where they had to build the Colosseum. According to an inscription, the tunnel/canal was not completely finished until the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE). The last workers were Roman legionaries.</p><br>
<p>Most parts of the tunnel/canal are intact and it can be visited on foot. Rock tombs are found on the wall of the canal.</p><br>
<h2>Notable persons</h2><br>
<p>Famous residents include Apollophanes, a physician of Antiochus III the Great (third century), and Firmus who aroused Palmyra and Egypt against Rome in 272 CE.</p><br>
<p>The Quemahoning Reservoir, also known to locals as The Dam, is created by the Quemahoning Dam, located on Quemahoning Creek on the border of Quemahoning Township, Conemaugh Township, and Jenner Township in Somerset County, Pennsylvania just south of Hollsopple. The dam was constructed by the Manufacturers Water Company to supply water for the Cambria Iron Company&#39;s works in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. Construction was begun in 1910 and completed in 1913. The reservoir created by this dam is about five miles long and two miles wide at its widest place, and drains into the Stonycreek River and thence into the Kiski-Conemaugh system.</p><br>
<p>It is one of the largest artificial bodies of water in Pennsylvania, and is known as a stopover for migratory waterfowl, including geese, swans, and herons. It was sold by Bethlehem Steel Corporation (successor to Cambria Iron) to the Cambria Somerset Authority in 2000, which now operates it both for recreation and industrial water supply.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, Somerset Borough, Pennsylvania has commenced construction of a pipeline from the reservoir to the borough to provide potable water. The original 66 inch pipeline constructed by Manufacturers Water Company from the reservoir to Johnstown was upgraded and refurbished after the sale to the Cambria Somerset Authority.</p><br>
<h2>Recreational use</h2><br>
<p>Fishing, boating, camping and occasional whitewater rafting are among the recreational activities available. Upgraded release valves in 2010 substantially increased discharges from the reservoir to improve whitewater rafting on the Stonycreek River.</p><br>
<p>Bethlehem Steel Corporation ran a gun club, a farm house and Bethco Pines, a recreational park for its staff. The park included boating, swimming and facilities which employed a number of people. The dissolution of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation in the 1990s caused the recreation areas and reservoir to be put up for sale, and was included in the sale to a coalition of local governments.</p><br>
<p>Summers Best Two Weeks (SB2W) operates portions of the former Bethco Pines recreational park located on a section of the Reservoir. The Camp is affiliated with SB2W on Lake Gloria which is approximately 5 miles away from the one on the Quemahoning Reservoir. Summers Best Two Weeks is a Christian sports resident camp that hosts hundreds of campers during the summer for two week intervals.</p><br>
<h2>Kickenapauling's Town</h2><br>
<p>The reservoir is said to cover the American Indian village of Kickenapauling&#39;s Town, which was referred to in records of Christopher Gist, as well as in the 10 June 1779 deed of Joseph Johns, after whom Johnstown was named.</p><br>
<p>Courthouse and Jail Rocks are two rock formations located near Bridgeport in the Nebraska Panhandle.</p><br>
<p>The Oregon-California Trail, the Mormon Trail, the Pony Express Trail and the Sidney-Deadwood Trail all ran near the rocks. The pair of rock formations served as a landmark along the trails for many pioneers traveling west in the 19th century. Many travelers would stray as much as five miles (8 km) from the Oregon Trail just to get a glimpse of the rocks.</p><br>
<p>Hundreds of westward-bound emigrants mentioned Courthouse Rock (originally also McFarlan&#39;s Castle) in their travel logs and journals. The name "Courthouse" was first used in 1837. In 1845, one traveler described the rock as "resembling the ruins of an old castle rises abruptly from the plain....It is difficult to look upon it and not believe that art had something to do with its construction. The voyagers have called it the Courthouse; but it looks infinitely more like the Capitol."</p><br>
<p>Courthouse and Jail Rocks, which rise 400 feet (121 m) above the North Platte Valley, are composed of Brule clay, Gering sandstone and volcanic ash. The rock formations are listed in the National Register of Historic Places and in the Nebraska Natural Areas Register.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Robert Stuart (explorer) first recorded Court House and Jail House Rock in 1812. By 1849 and the California Gold Rush, the promontories had been described as Castles, a Church, and Coffins. The name Court House and Jail House became the most common.</p><br>
<p>Pumpkin Creek forms an oxbow near the buttes where a meadow with trees make an suitable campsite. There is evidence that fur trappers, Indians, gold seekers on their way to California and the Black Hills, and the military once camped in this bend. Further to the southeast on Pumpkin Creek, is the site of a Pony Express Station. The Pony Express and the military used a shorter route on the west side as did the Sidney-Black Hills Trail.</p><br>
<p>The buttes are the first promontories along the trail coming from the east. Even for those emigrants who used the Julesburg, Colorado crossing of the South Platte River, the buttes are mentioned in their diaries.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Court House and Jail House Rocks are remnants of an ancient plateau, that was split by the North Platte River. They are remnants of the nearby hills that have become separated over time. At an elevation of 4,050 ft above sea level they rise 240 ft above Pumpkin Creek. Courthouse and Jail Rocks, which rise 400 feet (121 m) above the North Platte Valley, are composed of Brule clay, Gering sandstone and volcanic ash. The rock formations are listed in the National Register of Historic Places and in the Nebraska Natural Areas Register.</p><br>
<p>Fort Negley was a fortification built for the American Civil War, located approximately 2 mi south of downtown Nashville, Tennessee. It was the largest inland fort built in the United States during the war.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Once Confederate forces were routed from Forts Henry and Donelson (on the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, respectively), in February 1862, Confederate commanders decided that any further effort in the defense of Nashville would be pointless, and they abandoned any attempt to keep Nashville behind their lines. It was almost immediately occupied by Union forces, who rapidly began preparations for its defense. The largest of the fortifications erected was Fort Negley, a star-shaped limestone block structure atop St. Cloud Hill, south of the city. The construction of the fort was overseen by Captain James St. Clair Morton. The fort was constructed out of 62,500 cuft of stone, 18,000 cuft of earth and cost $130,000. It was largely constructed using the labor of local slaves (including women), newly freed slaves who had flocked to Nashville once it was taken by Union forces with the understanding that their status as slaves was to be revoked were they to work for the Union, and by free blacks forcibly conscripted for the work. Records show that 2,768 blacks were officially enrolled in its construction. During construction, 600 to 800 men died, and only 310 ever received any pay. The fort was named for Union Army commander General James S. Negley.</p><br>
<p>When the Battle of Nashville finally began in December 1864, it was largely fought on the heights even farther south of the city than Fort Negley, which despite its then-impressive appearance never played a leading military role. Shortly after the war, the fort was abandoned and fell into ruin; however, its outline could be readily discerned for many years afterwards in the encroaching woods. During the Reconstruction period, the area was used as a meeting place for the Ku Klux Klan.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>In the 1930s, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) made a major project of the restoration of Fort Negley. However, almost simultaneous with the completion of this project came the United States entry into World War II. Neither the manpower, funds, or the interest was available at the time to reopen the fort as an historic or interpretative center. After the war, the fort was allowed to continue to languish, becoming the site of vandalism, and minor crime; entry to the site was finally prohibited and the area reverted to forest. However, the surrounding grounds became the site of a municipal park, first as the site of baseball and softball fields for youth and adult leagues, and later as the site of Herschel Greer Stadium, a Minor League Baseball ballpark. The Cumberland Science Museum, a continuation under a new name and in a new venue of the former Nashville Childrens Museum (now called Adventure Science Center), was built on the northwestern slope. Most visitors to the stadium and the museum were generally unaware of what was on the wooded hilltop other than it was something which they were not allowed to access.</p><br>
<p>After years of discussions and negotiations, historic preservationists were successful in getting sufficient funding in the early 2000s for another restoration project, and the fort was reopened to the public for the first time in decades on December 10, 2004. The project went ahead when it was shown that similar places in other cities resulted in more economic stimulation and hence more tax revenue from the resultant tourism than was spent on the maintenance and operation of such sites. The recent restoration was not an attempt to restore the fort completely to its Civil War condition but rather to stabilize the ruins and make them more accessible and visible by removing many of the largest trees and moving some of the blocks back to their original positions; what exists today is a combination of the original fortification and the WPA restoration. In 2007, an additional $1 million in city funds was used to build a visitor&#39;s center. More work on the site is planned.</p><br>
<p>Part of the citys 2017 proposed plan to redevelop the Greer Stadium site, it having sat vacant since 2015, involves highlighting the Forts history through the creation of educational spaces and interpretive trails and the preservation of the fort and its sightlines. The plan also includes redeveloping the adjacent Greer Stadium property to include music and art space, a community center, open park space, retail space, and affordable housing. The presence of significant Civil War and African American historical resources, the citys stated goal of adding 4,500 acres of park land by 2027, and the citys closed-door process of selecting a redevelopment plan have been met with criticism.</p><br>
<p>Humboldt Bay is a natural bay and a multi-basin, bar-built coastal lagoon located on the rugged North Coast of California, entirely within Humboldt County. It is the largest protected body of water on the West Coast between San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound, the second largest enclosed bay in California, and the largest port between San Francisco and Coos Bay, Oregon. The largest city adjoining the bay is Eureka, the regional center and county seat of Humboldt County, followed by the college town of Arcata. These primary cities together with adjoining unincorporated communities and several small towns comprise a Humboldt Bay Area total population of nearly 80,000 people, which accounts for nearly 60% of the population of Humboldt County. In addition to being home to more than 100 plant species, 300 invertebrate species, 100 fish species, and 200 bird species, the bay and its complex system of marshes and grasses support hundreds of thousands of migrating and local shore birds.</p><br>
<p>Commercially, this second largest estuary in California houses the largest oyster production operations on the West Coast, producing more than half of all oysters farmed in California.</p><br>
<p>The Port of Humboldt Bay (sometimes also referred to as the Port of Eureka) is a deep water port with harbor facilities including large industrial docks at Fairhaven, Samoa, and Fields Landing designed to serve cargo and other vessels, while several marinas also located in Greater Eureka have the capacity to serve hundreds of small to mid-size boats and pleasure craft. Since the 1850s, the bay has been used extensively to export logs and forest products as part of the historic West coast lumber trade, with infrequent shipping occurring currently.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Humboldt Bay is the only deep water bay between the San Francisco Bay and Coos Bay, Oregon and the Port of Humboldt Bay is the only protected deep water port for large ocean-going vessels for the large region. Despite being the only protected harbor along nearly 500 mi of coastline, the bay&#39;s location was undiscovered or at least unreliably charted for centuries after the first arrival of European explorers to the Pacific Coast. This is partially because it is extremely difficult to see from the ocean. The harbor opens to the sea through a narrow and historically treacherous passage, which was blocked from direct view due to sandbars now managed by jetties. Contributing to its isolation were features of the coastal mountain range which extends from the ocean approximately 150 miles inland and the common marine layer (fog) in addition to frequent clouds or rain.</p><br>
<p>Humboldt Bay began to form when a river valley drowned about 10,000 to 15,000 years ago during a period of rapid sea level rise. Bay sediments also contain buried salt marsh deposits showing that areas of the bay have subsided during episodic large magnitude subduction earthquakes.</p><br>
<p>Three rivers, the Mad, Elk and Eel, drained into Humboldt Bay during the mid-Pleistocene. Subsequently, the Mad River cut itself a new outlet to the sea, and the flow of the Eel was diverted by tectonic uplift of Table Bluff at the southern end of the bay, but Elk River continues to drain into Humboldt Bay.</p><br>
<h3>Geomorphology</h3><br>
<p>Presently, the bay is split into three regions:</p><br>
<p>the North Bay to the north of Samoa Bridge</p><br>
<p>the Entrance Bay from Samoa Bridge to South Jetty; and</p><br>
<p>the South Bay which is the remainder of the bay to the south.</p><br>
<p>Daby, Woodley and Indian Island are in the North Bay and all three are within the City of Eureka. Low tides reveal two more islands named Bird Island and Sand Island which was formed from dredge spoils left in the early 20th century. A large eelgrass bed in the South Bay which may be exposed at low tides is locally known as Clam Island.</p><br>
<p>At high tide the surface area is approximately 24 square miles while only 10.8 square miles at low tide. Each tidal cycle replaces 41% of the water in Humboldt Bay although exchange in small channels and sloughs of the bay can take up to three weeks.</p><br>
<p>The bay is approximately 14 miles long, but can be from 0.5 miles wide at the entrance to the widest point at 4.3 miles in the North Bay. The surface area of Humboldt Bay is 16,000 acres of which 6,000 acres are intertidal mudflats, and over 5,000 acres are primarily eelgrass habitat, which has been relatively constant since 1871, despite more than 80% of the bay&#39;s coastal marsh habitats having been lost or fragmented by levee, railroad and highway construction.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Early explorers including Francis Drake, Sebastián Vizcaíno Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra and George Vancouver, did not discover the bay due to a combination of circumstances: the situation of the opening to the ocean, storms and fog. Captain Jonathan Winship is credited with the first recorded entry into Humboldt Bay by sea in June 1806 while employed by the Russian-American Company. His party, including Aleuts in baidarka to hunt sea otter, were met with hostility by the local Indians. Winship&#39;s party named the bay, the Bay of Resanof, after Nikolai Rezanov, the Chamberlain of the Tsar, and son-in-law of Grigory Shelikhov who was the founder of the first Russian colony in America. In 1849, an expedition of seven men led by Josiah Gregg attempted to find an overland route to the Pacific Ocean. They left from the gold town of Weaverville for the 150-mile trek to the sea. Because of the density of the redwood forests and because Gregg stopped frequently to measure latitude and the size of the trees the expedition averaged only two miles a day. The party was near starvation when they emerged on the coast where they discovered what is now known as Humboldt Bay on 20 December 1849. After stocking up on food the party walked to San Francisco to report their discovery of the bay. In March 1850, two ships, the General Morgan and the Laura Virginia, were sent to the bay from San Francisco. After considerable initial difficulty due to waves breaking heavily over shifting sands of the bar crossing, the ships entered the bay in 1850. The members of the Laura Virginia company named the bay after Alexander von Humboldt, a noted German naturalist.</p><br>
<p>The local Native American name for the bay was Qual-a-wa-loo, while the Wiyot nation called it "Wike" or "Wiki". Due north of Eureka in the central, narrowest portion of the bay are three islands: Woodley Island, Daby Island, and Indian Island, which is National Historic Landmark #67 and one of the sites of the 1860 Wiyot Massacre.</p><br>
<p>Humboldt Bay was charted by the United States Coast Survey in 1850, although the map was not published until 1852.</p><br>
<p>After two years of white settlement on Humboldt Bay in 1852, only six ships sailed from the bay to San Francisco, but by 1853, on the same route, 143 ships loaded with lumber crossed the bar. Of those, despite the best efforts of local pilots and tugs, 12 ships wrecked on the bar and in times of bad weather, ships could remain in harbor for weeks before attempting the crossing. The first marker at the harbor entrance was placed in 1853. The USA Federal Government authorized funds for a lighthouse near the mouth. In 1856 the Humboldt Harbor Light was built on the north spit, in 1872 a bell boat was added, and two years later, a steam whistle replaced the bell to assist mariners during times of dense fog. The Humboldt Bay Life-Saving Station is on the bay side of the North Spit south of the World War II era blimp base.</p><br>
<p>By the 1880s, long wharves were built into the bay for the lumber shipments and shipbuilding became a key part of the process. The Bendrixson shipyards alone produced 120 ships on Humboldt Bay. Building new ships could not make up for the loss of lives. Eighty-one people drowned between 1853 and 1880 during bar crossings including the captain of the brig Crimea who was washed overboard on the bar crossing on 18 February 1870. Shipping reached about 600 vessels a year by 1881.</p><br>
<p>Humboldt Bay was made an official port of entry in 1882 which permitted shipping directly to overseas ports. In 1886 after fierce storms nearly destroyed the Harbor Light, it was replaced by the Table Bluff Light.</p><br>
<h2>Engineering</h2><br>
<p>The unimproved state of the mouth of the bay was a crescent-shaped bar covered by a line of breaking waves. The entrance of the bay is protected by two sand spits, named South Spit and North Spit. The bay mouth was stabilized by jetties with one jetty projecting from each spit. The South Spit jetty was built starting in 1889, but by 1890 it was apparent that it was eroding the North Spit and widening the channel. The jetties are approximately 6,000 ft long and 2,200 ft apart. Storm damage led to rebuilding of the jetties in 1911, 1927, 1932, 1939, 1950, 1957, 1963, 1971, 1988 and 1995. Entrance currents are strong ranging from 2.0 knots average maximum ebb and 1.6 knots average maximum flood; although peak rates can be nearly twice as high.</p><br>
<p>In 1971 and 1984, 42 ST dolosse were added in two layers to secure the jetties which are maintained by the USA Army Corps of Engineers. In 1972, a local contractor manufactured 4,796 dolosse locally, 4,795 of them are on the jetties, the other one is outside the Eureka Chamber of Commerce. In 1983, 1,000 more dolosse were made by a different contractor at the same South Spit yard and left to cure; local newspapers named the curing site "Humboldt&#39;s Stonehenge." In 1985, 450 of the dolosse were shipped 35 mi around the bay to be placed on the North Spit. At that point, more than $20,000,000 dollars had been spent in total to protect the entrance to Humboldt Bay. The jetties were named an American Society of Civil Engineers California historical civil engineering landmark in 1977, and a national historical civil engineering landmark in 1981. The jetties are inspected annual by the USA Army Corps of Engineers. In 1996, the inspection showed that 34 of the dolos had cracked, 17 on each jetty, mostly near the southern seaward head.</p><br>
<p>Dredging of channels for shipping began in 1881; periodic dredging of the entrance and shipping channels keeps them from 38 ft to 48 ft deep. These changes have led to severe erosion at the entrance, where approximately 188 acres of Buhne Point, which had formerly visually blocked the entrance to the bay, washed away between 1854 and 1955.</p><br>
<p>Most of the large sloughs around the Bay have been diked or leveed. Of the 10,000 acre of historic intertidal marsh, only about 10% remains due to land reclamation for hay or pasture as well as the construction of the Northwestern Pacific Railroad in 1901, which reduced tidal connectivity along the eastern edge of the bay.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Humboldt Bay and its tidal sloughs are open to fishing year-round, and the bay is home to the Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge, created in 1971 for the protection and management of wetlands and bay habitats for migratory birds. In the winter the bay to serves as a feeding and resting site for more than one hundred thousand birds. Humboldt Bay is recognized for protection by the California Bays and Estuaries Policy. The Humboldt Botanical Garden at the College of the Redwoods near the Bay preserves and displays local native plants.</p><br>
<p>The bay is a source of subsistence and sport fishing for a variety of salt-water fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. Dungeness crab are fished commercially, and oysters are commercially farmed in the bay.</p><br>
<p>The bay itself has been invaded by the European green crab, a voracious predator that is known to prey on the young of native crab species, as well as native mussels, oysters, and clams. European green crab were first documented in Humboldt Bay in 1995, and have been blamed for a decline in clam harvesting.</p><br>
<p>The bay supports over 100 species of marine and estuarine fish, including green sturgeon, coho and Chinook salmon, steelhead and coastal cutthroat trout which spawn and rear in its watershed, covering an area of 223 square miles. The federally endangered tidewater goby is found in the bay along with more common three-spined stickleback, shiner perch and Pacific staghorn sculpin. Birds found on the bay include gull species, Caspian tern, brown pelican, cormorant, surf scoter, and common murre. Marine mammals are represented by harbor porpoises, harbor seal, California sea lion and river otter, with Steller sea lion and gray whale found immediately offshore. Leopard sharks have been reported inside the bay which also provides habitat for young bat rays, feeding on clams, crabs, shrimps, worms, sea cucumbers, brittle stars, various gastropods and isopods.</p><br>
<h2>Bay settlements</h2><br>
<p>About 80,000 people reside on the shore of the bay in at least 20 named settlements on the coastal plain around the bay estuary; most of these are unincorporated suburbs of the City of Eureka.</p><br>
<p>Settlements located on or near the bay, listed clockwise from the north side of the bay entrance:</p><br>
<p>Fairhaven</p><br>
<p>Samoa</p><br>
<p>Manila</p><br>
<p>Arcata</p><br>
<p>Sunny Brae</p><br>
<p>Bayside (includes Hidden Valley, which is surrounded by Indianola)</p><br>
<p>Eureka</p><br>
<p>Indianola</p><br>
<p>Freshwater</p><br>
<p>Myrtletown</p><br>
<p>Cutten</p><br>
<p>Ridgewood</p><br>
<p>Pine Hill</p><br>
<p>Bayview</p><br>
<p>Elk River</p><br>
<p>Humboldt Hill</p><br>
<p>King Salmon</p><br>
<p>Fields Landing</p><br>
<p>Hookton</p><br>
<p>Table Bluff</p><br>
<h2>Bay tributaries and sloughs</h2><br>
<p>Streams and sloughs that enter into Humboldt Bay are listed north to south, clockwise, with tributaries entering nearest the bay listed first. The primary streams of major watershed areas east of the bay (draining a combined area of 288 square miles) are in bold.</p><br>
<p>Mad River Slough</p><br>
<p>Liscom Slough</p><br>
<p>Janes Creek (enters the bay as McDaniels Slough)</p><br>
<p>Jolly Giant Creek (enters the bay as Butcher Slough)</p><br>
<p>Campbell Creek (partially channeled to Gannon Slough)</p><br>
<p>Fickle Hill Creek</p><br>
<p>Gannon Slough</p><br>
<p>Grotzman Creek</p><br>
<p>Beith Creek</p><br>
<p>Little Jacoby Creek</p><br>
<p>Jacoby Creek</p><br>
<p>Washington Gulch Creek</p><br>
<p>Rocky Gulch Creek</p><br>
<p>Eureka Slough</p><br>
<p>Fay Slough</p><br>
<p>*Cochran Creek</p><br>
<p>Freshwater Creek</p><br>
<p>*Little Freshwater Creek</p><br>
<p>Ryan Slough</p><br>
<p>*Ryan Creek</p><br>
<p>First Slough</p><br>
<p>Second Slough</p><br>
<p>Third Slough</p><br>
<p>Clarke Slough</p><br>
<p>Elk River</p><br>
<p>Swain Slough</p><br>
<p>*Martin Slough</p><br>
<p>Willow Brook/White Slough</p><br>
<p>Salmon Creek</p><br>
<p>Deering Creek</p><br>
<p>Little Salmon Creek</p><br>
<p>Hookton Slough</p><br>
<h2>Harbor management</h2><br>
<p>Humboldt Bay Harbor Recreation and Conservation District is the governing body of Humboldt Bay, the Port of Humboldt Bay, and the Port of Eureka. Maritime pilots trained and employed by the District are the only persons authorized to bring vessels beyond a certain size into the bay unless the ship&#39;s pilot has proper certification because despite the jetties and dredging, the harbor entrance remains challenging. The Harbor District maintains a 237 berth marina at Woodley Island, serving both recreational and commercial boats and a shipping dock is located in South Bay.</p><br>
<p>Due to the dangerous sand bar and shifting currents many ships were wrecked in the area of the entrance to Humboldt Bay.Forty-two ships were wrecked in and around the channel, most of them under tow by a tug boat. Fifty-four ships were wrecked on the Humboldt County coastline. Most shipwrecks occurred between 1850 and 1899. There were at least twenty-nine shipwrecks in the channel and twenty shipwrecks along the coast. From 1900 to 1940 there were at least twelve shipwrecks in the channel and twenty-three shipwrecks occurred along the coast. From 1941 to 1971 two shipwrecks occurred in the channel and five shipwrecks occurred along the coast.</p><br>
<p>The Wawel Castle is a castle residency located in central Kraków, Poland. Built at the behest of King Casimir III the Great, it consists of a number of structures situated around the Italian-styled main courtyard. The castle, being one of the largest in Poland, represents nearly all European architectural styles of medieval, renaissance and baroque periods. The Wawel Royal Castle and the Wawel Hill constitute the most historically and culturally significant site in the country. In 1978 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the Historic Centre of Kraków.</p><br>
<p>For centuries the residence of the kings of Poland and the symbol of Polish statehood, the Castle is now one of the country’s premier art museums. Established in 1930, the museum encompasses ten curatorial departments responsible for collections of paintings, including an important collection of Italian Renaissance paintings, prints, sculpture, textiles, among them the Sigismund II Augustus tapestry collection, goldsmith’s work, arms and armor, ceramics, Meissen porcelain, and period furniture. The museum’s holdings in oriental art include the largest collection of Ottoman tents in Europe. With seven specialized conservation studios, the museum is also an important center for the conservation of works of art.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>People have lived on Wawel Hill at the site of the Castle as early as fifty thousand years ago, in the Paleolithic Age. The settlement was apparently bustling with trade, assorted crafts and local farming. When more people began to settle down on the Wawel Hill and when trade became more efficient, the rulers of Poland took up their residence at the Hill as well.</p><br>
<p>During the early 16th century King Sigismund I the Old (Zygmunt I in Polish) and his wife brought in the best native and foreign artists including Italian architects, sculptors, and German decorators, to refurbish the castle into a splendid Renaissance palace. It soon became a paragon of stately residence in Central and Eastern Europe and served widely as a model throughout the region.</p><br>
<p>In the fire of 1595, the northeast part of the castle burned down. King Sigismund III Vasa rebuilt it, although of his efforts only the Senator Stairs and the fireplace in the Bird Room remain today. In 1609 King Sigismund moved the capital to Warsaw, and tough times for Wawel began. Both the castle and other buildings were neglected despite the concerns of local governors. The Swedish invasions of 1655–1657 and 1702 contributed to the further deterioration of the castle.</p><br>
<p>The Hill was occupied by the Prussian Army in 1794. Royal Insignia were stolen and never retrieved (apart from the Szczerbiec). After the Third Partition of Poland (1795) Wawel, as an important defensive point, was mostly demolished and the remaining part was modernised by Austrians with defensive walls. The interior of the castle was changed and some of the buildings pulled down. In the second part of the 19th century the Austrians redesigned the defensive walls making them a part of a stronghold. However, in 1905 the emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria gave an order for Austrian troops to leave Wawel. Restoration works began, with the discovery of the Rotunda of Virgin Mary as well as other relics of the past. The renovations of the Wawel Hill were financed by public subscriptions.</p><br>
<p>After World War I, the authorities of the newly independent Polish Second Republic decided that Wawel Castle was to become a representative building of the Polish state and would be used by the Governor and later by the President himself. In 1921 the Polish Parliament passed a resolution which gave Wawel official status as the residence of the President of Poland. Following the ravages of World War II, by the decree of the State National Council, Wawel Castle became a national museum.</p><br>
<h2>Crown Treasury and armory</h2><br>
<p>The Crown Treasury situated in the historic Gothic rooms which were used from the 15th century on for storing the Polish coronation insignia and Crown Jewels, feature on display priceless objects from the former Treasury that survived plunder, among them the memorabilia of Polish monarchs including members of their families and eminent personages, like the hat and sword given to John III Sobieski by the pope after the Battle of Vienna, as well as the coronation sword Szczerbiec.</p><br>
<h2>Chambers</h2><br>
<p>State Rooms</p><br>
<p>Royal Private Apartments</p><br>
<p>Exhibition "The Lost Wawel"</p><br>
<p>Exhibition "Oriental Art"</p><br>
<p>The Royal Gardens</p><br>
<p>Dragon&#39;s Den</p><br>
<h2>Fragment in Chicago</h2><br>
<p>A column fragment of Wawel Castle has been incorporated into Chicagos landmark Tribune Tower. Located in its own niche over the upper-left corner of the main entrance, it is a visual tribute to Chicagos large Polish populace, the largest such presence outside of the Republic of Poland.</p><br>
<p>Bribie Island is the smallest and most northerly of three major sand islands forming the coastline sheltering the northern part of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia. The others are Moreton Island and North Stradbroke Island. Bribie Island is 34 km long, and 8 km at its widest.</p><br>
<p>Bribie Island hugs the coastline and tapers to a long spit at its most northern point near Caloundra, and is separated from the mainland by Pumicestone Passage. The ocean side of the island is somewhat sheltered from prevailing winds by Moreton Island and associated sand banks and has only a small surf break. The lee side is calm, with white sandy beaches in the south.</p><br>
<p>Most of the island is uninhabited national park (55.8 km&sup2;) and forestry plantations. The southern end of the island has been intensively urbanised as part of the Moreton Bay Region, the main suburbs being Bongaree, Woorim, Bellara and Banksia Beach. A bridge from Sandstone Point on the mainland was completed in 1963.</p><br>
<p>Buckley&#39;s Hole, at the southern tip of the island, is an important bird habitat and refuge.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Suburbs</h3><br>
<p>Crossing to southern part of the island from the mainland via the bridge, the first suburb to be encountered is Bellara. The other four suburbs in the southern half of the island are Woorim (about 5 km away on the islands surf side), Bongaree at the southern end of the island, on the calm side or passage side and Banksia Beach and White Patch at the northern end of the populated area, also on the passage side&#39;. Two other localities, Welsby and Bribie Island North, make up the undeveloped northern part of the island.</p><br>
<p>Bribie Island North is part of the Sunshine Coast Region while all of the other suburbs on the island are part of the Moreton Bay Region.</p><br>
<h3>Transport</h3><br>
<p>Bribie Island Coaches operates a bus service around the Island as well as a route which runs to Caboolture and Morayfield via Ningi and Pebble Beach. In August 2007 an alternative route, via Beachmere and Pebble Beach, was introduced. The service to Caboolture is timed to connect with trains to and from Brisbane.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>There are many types of wildlife present on the island. Kangaroos, wallabies, emus, various snake species, green tree frogs and dingos can often be seen venturing from the national park into the surrounding suburbs.</p><br>
<p>Pumicestone Passage, located between the island and the mainland, is a protected marine park that provides habitat for dugongs, turtles and dolphins. There are also extensive mangrove forests in this area.</p><br>
<p>Eucalypt forests, banksias and heathlands are the predominant vegetation elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>Bribie Island is home to around 350 species of bird. This includes a range of honeyeater species, lorikeets, waterbirds and birds of prey. Flying foxes (also called fruit bats) visit the area, along with several species of small insect-eating bats. Flying foxes are important pollinators and seed dispersers while the insect-eating bats help control mosquito and other insect populations.</p><br>
<p>Buckley&#39;s Hole, at the southern tip of the island, was declared an environmental park in 1992.</p><br>
<p>The island seems particularly prone to instances of bee swarming</p><br>
<h3>National Park</h3><br>
<p>Bribie Island National Park covers 55.8 km², nearly a third of the total area of the island. There is a common misconception that the national park covers most of the non-inhabited area, but in fact most of the centre of the island consists of conifer plantations closed to public access. Formerly leased to CSR Timber, the Queensland Government is currently re-planting around 25 km² of this area through its DPI Forestry arm. Much of the rest has been developed for housing.</p><br>
<p>In 2009 the Queenslands National Parks and Wildlife Service (QNPWS) used imported blocks of rock to prevent access to roads and tracks leading into the national park forcing all vehicle access to the park to be via the Beach Access Track at Woorim or the Ranger Station at Whitepatch. All access to the national park now requires a permit to be purchased. Local residents were threatened by letter with fines of up to $16,000 by QNPWS in 2009 for walking domestic animals within the park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-European contact</h3><br>
<p>The inhabitants of Bribie Island at the time they were encountered by Matthew Flinders in H.M. colonial sloop Norfolk in 1799 were the Djindubari people. broadly part of the Kabi or more correctly Gubbi Gubbi people of South-East Queensland. Meston recorded the pre-contact population of Aboriginal people as 600–1,000, but by 1891 none remained on the Island and only four lived on the mainland.</p><br>
<h3>Joondaburri lifestyle</h3><br>
<p>The comparatively rich coastal country allowed permanent residence. Natural resources of land and sea were abundant and harvested according to the seasons. Winter mullet schooled from May to July. Dolphins were trained to herd the fish into waiting nets and spears. Winter was the best season for bream, followed by tailor in September and October. In summer mud crabs and oysters were plentiful and dugong were hunted. Summer whiting and flathead were speared or netted. Bungwall Fern was gathered for its starchy roots all year round. Kangaroo, eels and carpet snakes were rich in protein and fat. The dominant shellfish used as food was the oyster known today as the Sydney Rock Oyster known locally as tibir, at that time growing naturally on the seabeds. The oyster middens, many metres thick, were plundered by early settlers for lime. A significant midden site, now lost, was located not far from Bongaree jetty. It contained discarded shells, marsupial bones and stone tools. The biggest of the oyster middens was at White Patch, where dugong were also plentiful. The Ugari (pipi) on the coastal beaches was also eaten.</p><br>
<h3>James Cook, 1770</h3><br>
<p>Lieutenant James Cook sighted the Glass House Mountains west of the Island on Thursday 17 May 1770 while sailing up the east coast of Australia in HM Bark Endeavour. He called these hills the Glass Houses as the reflections and the shape of the hills reminded him of the glass manufacturing houses back in England. James Cook named the area Glass House Bay and was the first European to name this stretch of water.</p><br>
<h3>Matthew Flinders, 1799</h3><br>
<p>On 16 July 1799 Captain Matthew Flinders left Glass House Bay about 2 mi east of the shore in the Norfolk. He sailed south-west between Moreton Island and the mainland parallel to the southern shore of Bribie Island until spotting an opening in the low western shore. He anchored at 8:15am and transferred with a small crew and Bongaree to a smaller craft. He landed on Bribie Island unaware that it wasnt the mainland and met a small group of Aborigines who had gathered on the beach. Although Bongaree didnt speak the same dialect as the local aborigines the meeting was peaceful until one attempted to remove Flinders hat. Flinders refused and the Europeans and Bongaree returned to their boat. As they left the man who had tried to remove Flinders hat threw a spear that missed the small boat and crew. Flinders fired his musket at the men on shore and wounded the man who had thrown the spear. The Aborigines fled the beach. Flinders named the southern shore and site of the confrontation Point Skirmish. There is an area on the modern map marked Skirmish Point but should not be confused with the actual place of the incident which is known as South Point.</p><br>
<p>Flinders needed to repair leaks in his boat and pulled it ashore some 5 mi north of the area he had the incident with the locals for those repairs. Once his boat was repaired he explored the mainland side of the passage and scaled Mt. Beerburrum to get a view of the area. He spent 15 days in the region.</p><br>
<p>It was not until some time later it was determined that this was an island and the changing of the name of the waterway between Bribie Island and the mainland was made at some other point.</p><br>
<h3>Convict era</h3><br>
<p>The origin of the name Bribie are believed to be linked to a convict named Bribie or Breiby who gathered basket-making material on the island in the 1830s. In his memoirs, Tom Petrie wrote:</p><br>
<p>In those days there was a prisoner among the others who</p><br>
<p>made baskets for the Government called "Bribie, the basket</p><br>
<p>maker." He was not chained, and was allowed to go about</p><br>
<p>in a boat to get cane from the scrubs for his work.... It was from this man Bribie, my</p><br>
<p>father thinks, that Bribie Island got its name. He cannot</p><br>
<p>remember distinctly on this point, but has some vague recollection of a connection between the man and the island –</p><br>
<p>whether he was blown ashore there, or what, he does not know.</p><br>
<h3>Bribie in World War II</h3><br>
<p>Bribie Island fortifications were constructed from 1939 to 1943 as part of the defence of South East Queensland during the Second World War, and to provide artillery training for Australian soldiers. Other fortifications throughout Moreton Bay during the war, included at Caloundra, on Moreton Island at Cowan Cowan Point and Rous. Together with the existing installations at Fort Lytton, they provided a coordinated series of defensive batteries for Moreton Bay.</p><br>
<p>In February 1939, six months before the start of WW2, a review of the defences of Moreton Bay called for two 6 inch Mark XI guns at north Bribie.</p><br>
<p>Soon after Australia declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, 6 inch guns previously carried by the World War I-era cruiser were taken to the present location of Fort Bribie to guard the northwest channel, which ran close to the shore near Caloundra, across the bay in a southeasterly direction towards Moreton Island, and then southwesterly towards the mouth of the river, forming a Z-shaped route. The most effective sites for guns were the closest points to the channel bends.</p><br>
<p>The mounting and placement of the guns was hopelessly inadequate and according to Major General Robert E Jackson, Officer in Charge of Northern Command in July 1940, Fort Bribie was "no value from a defence point of view" and had to be fixed.</p><br>
<p>Before this could happen an argument about the location broke out, costings being sought for both Bribie and Caloundra. It was argued Caloundra was higher, better equipped and cheaper to build, whereas Bribie was flat, hot, infested with mosquitos and sandflies, had no freshwater, no bridge and would be much more expensive. The decision came down to Fort Bribie&#39;s ability to cover both entrances to the northwest channel, while Caloundra could only cover the most northerly entrance. The guns had a range of about 19 km.</p><br>
<p>Colonel JS Whitelaw designed the layout of the fort on Bribie and recommended its completion, receiving the go ahead by early 1942. By April—hastened by the December 1941 attacks by the Japanese forces on Pearl Harbour, Malaya, Hong Kong and Singapore—construction of the gun emplacements was almost complete. The construction cost of all of Fort Bribie&#39;s concrete structures was ₤55,000, about $2.5 million in 2010 dollars.</p><br>
<p>On 19 February 1942, Darwin was bombed in two raids killing at least 243 people and wounding between 300 and 400 more. By November 1943 Darwin was bombed 64 times, with other towns also attacked including Townsville. The ferocity and success of the attacks suddenly created a very real dread in the Queensland population.</p><br>
<p>In July 1942 after failing to take Port Moresby by sea in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Japanese landed on Papua New Guinea&#39;s north coast and moved south, capturing Kokoda on 29 July. This was the first time any Australian territory had been occupied by an enemy force.</p><br>
<p>Reinforcements were sent to Fort Bribie and Fort Cowan Cowan, strengthening the existing defences at the two forts. A number of 155 mm guns from the First World War were provided to upgrade Australian coastal defences, and new forts were constructed during 1942-43 at Skirmish Point on south Bribie Island and Rous on Moreton Island. The Skirmish Point Battery at Woorim contained two fixed 155 mm gun emplacements on Panama mounts.</p><br>
<p>The Pacific War also brought the Americans soldiers. Brisbane during the Second World War</p><br>
<p>It was widely believed at the time that the American and Australian armed forces and governments had conspired on a plan to abandon Australia north of Brisbane to the Japanese in case of invasion. The plan, known as the Brisbane Line was never official policy, but the alleged strategy gained support after General Douglas MacArthur referred to it during a press conference in March 1943, where he also coined the term Brisbane Line.</p><br>
<p>Many historians of the WW2 period on Bribie island refer to Brisbane Line and draw it from Fort Bribie due west to Charleville, then south-west to a point just west of Adelaide, as recounted by Warwick Outram in Bribie Memories 2nd edition 2009. George H. Johnston, War Correspondent for the Argus newspaper was present when MacArthur mentioned the Brisbane Line on 16 March 1943, but later clarified the matter by writing it was Gen. MacArthur who abandoned the Brisbane Line concept and decided that the battle for Australia should be fought in New Guinea.</p><br>
<p>At Fort Bribie itself, two mine control huts were used by Royal Australian Navy during 1942 and 1943, known as RAN 2. These monitored and controlled the guard indicator loops and mine loops set in the North West Channel. The indicator loops relied on a moving magnet or any large mass of metal, which naturally acquires magnetic field, to induce a current in a stationary loop of wire. If a submarine was detected by the guard loop, the operator would wait until there was also a swing mine loop before detonating the mines by sending a current down the mine loop. RAN 2 was moved to Cowan Cowan on Moreton Island in September 1943. When the mines in Moreton Bay were decommission at the end of the war, six were missing. One was found at Tewantin in 1945.</p><br>
<p>The mines weighed 1,430 kg and were buoyant, so needed to be moored with sinkers, up to 25 m below the surface. Every 5 minutes hour perturbations due to the tides known as perts had to be recorded. Daily and weekly tests were carried out on all equipment. In three years of operation, the mines were never detonated.</p><br>
<p>Another minefield with guard loop built in 1942 protected Pearl Channel and Main Channel south of Bribie Island. The guard loops ran from the Loop Control Hut at the end of North Street, just north of Woorim to Combouyuro Point, Moreton Island. Three Harbour Defence Asdics, sea-bed mounted submarine detection devices now known as sonar, were position down-channel from the guard loops, as a second means of detection.</p><br>
<h2>Heritage listings</h2><br>
<p>Bribie Island has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:</p><br>
<p>Bribie Island Second World War Fortifications</p><br>
<h2>Politics and people</h2><br>
<p>Federally, Bribie Island is contained within the Division of Longman which since 2016 has been represented by Susan Lamb MP, a member of the Australian Labor Party. Rick Williams is the Australian Labor Member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly for Pumicestone which includes Bribie Island within its electoral boundaries (2012) while the current Moreton Bay Regional Council Division 1 councillor is Brooke Savige (2016).</p><br>
<p>The artist Ian Fairweather lived on Bribie Island for many years in self-inflicted poverty. A park on the island is named in his honour at the corner of First Ave and Hunter St Bongaree.</p><br>
<p>Brisbane Broncos players Jack Reed, an English representative, and Matt Gillett, a State of Origin representative grew up on Bribie Island.</p><br>
<h2>Infrastructure</h2><br>
<h3>Retail and entertainment facilities</h3><br>
<p>Bribie Islands main shopping centre is at Bellara, comprising a Woolworths supermarket and a Target store, as well as a number of nationally known companies such as Telstra, Rockmans, Priceline Pharmacy, Nextra Newsagency, Liquorland, Brumbys Bakery, EB Games, Flight Centre, Millers, Prouds, Donut King, Mister Minit, Spendless Shoes, Strandbags and Gloria Jean&#39;s Coffees. The island also has an additional Woolworths supermarket at Banksia Beach, as well as an Aldi store and two large IGA supermarkets located at Bongaree and Woorim. Traditional "strip" development of shopping facilities around the island provides a comprehensive array of retail businesses such as hardware stores, medical centres, newsagents, chemists and food outlets.</p><br>
<p>There are two large, modern hotels—the Bribie Island Hotel at Bellara and the Blue Pacific Hotel on the surf side of the island at Woorim. Residents and visitors often prefer to visit local clubs such as the large and award-winning Bribie Island Citizens and RSL Club, the two bowls clubs at Bongaree, the Surf Life Saving Club at Woorim on the surf side, and the small Solander Lakes Bowls Club at Banksia Beach. There is a well-established golf club at Woorim, with a second golf course and club house recently completed at Banksia Beach as part of the Pacific Harbour development. A small twin cinema was established in 1997 on McMahon Street.</p><br>
<h3>Bribie Island Bridge</h3><br>
<p>The existing bridge was the longest, pre-stressed, pre-cast concrete bridge in Australia at the time of its construction. With a length of 2736 feet (831.4 m), the bridge cost $716,321 and was officially opened on Saturday 19 October 1963 by the then premier of Queensland Frank Nicklin.</p><br>
<p>An additional bridge onto Bribie Island has been proposed, and an official Bribie Island Bridge Corridor Study was conducted in 2015 by the Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads that supports this proposal. The study recommends the new bridge be built 15 m north of the existing bridge, however the anticipated date of commencement has not yet been announced.</p><br>
<h3>Desalination plant</h3><br>
<p>A desalination plant has been proposed for Bribie Island by the National/Liberal Party (LNP). The previous (up to 2012) Labor government decided it was not a good place to build a Desal Plant. Some residents are opposed to the plant due to environmental reasons, however others see the plant as a benefit to the island.</p><br>
<h3>Schools</h3><br>
<p>There are two primary schools: Bribie Island State School at Bongaree, and Banksia Beach State School, and one high school: Bribie Island State High School. Both primary schools are governed by a School Enrolment Management Plan, and only accept students who live within their designated catchment areas.</p><br>
<p>Bribie Island State School was opened on 4 February 1924. Prior to the opening of the Bribie Island State High School in 1989 secondary students were transported to Caboolture. The 2006 enrolment at the high school was 954 students. Bribie Island State High School presently has over 1,000 students. Banksia Beach State School opened in 1992. Student numbers are continuing to rise annually and are now over 1,000 students.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics there were 16,209 persons resident on the island in 2006. Of these, 7796 (48%) were males and 8413 (52%) were females. Of the total population 1.6% were Indigenous persons compared with 2.3% for all of Australia.</p><br>
<p>13.6% of the population on the island were children aged between 0–14 years and 50.3% were persons aged 55 years and over. The median age of persons was 55 years, compared with 37 years for all of Australia. 75.7% stated they were born in Australia. Other places of birth included were: England 6.6%, New Zealand 4.0%, Germany 0.9%, Netherlands 0.8% and Scotland 0.8%. The median weekly household income was $609, compared with $1,027 for all of Australia.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>In 2004 a reality television series called The Hot House that aired on Network Ten was filmed on Bribie Island. The show entailed 14 couples building a house together knowing that only one couple would win the house and a number of prizes, including a boat, which came with it. On the final night of filming locals were given free tickets to enter the area which had been fenced off for filming.</p><br>
<h3>In popular fiction</h3><br>
<p>The Enigmatic Mr Phelps, a novel by Canada-based English international crime writer David B. Green, was partly set in Banksia Beach during the winter of 2004. It includes many references to the island and the surrounding area. Part two of the two-part novel, Berlin by Christmas, features an opening chapter based entirely on the island. The fictional character of "Phelps" is often confused with the real life of the author.</p><br>
<p>Nick Earls&#39; 1996 novel After January includes a description of a visit to the beach and the ruins of World War II battlements on the northern end of the island.</p><br>
<p>Buka Island is the second largest island in the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, in eastern Papua New Guinea. It is in the North Bougainville District, with the Autonomous Region&#39;s and district&#39;s capital city of Buka on the island.</p><br>
<p>The island is separated by the narrow Buka Passage from the northwestern coast of Bougainville Island.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Buka was first occupied by humans in the Paleolithic period, with evidence for human habitation at Kilu Cave some 30,000 years ago. The present inhabitants speak languages that are from the eastward push of Austronesian languages of the Lapita Culture complex, some 2,700 years ago.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>The island was occupied by Japan during World War II. Although the island was strafed and bombed by allied airforces, allied armies never fought in Buka. The Japanese surrendered when the Allies were approaching the Selau peninsula in nearby Bougainville.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The economy of Buka can be divided into a very small urban component and the village sector. The village sector is characterised by subsistence farming, primarily of sweet potato as a staple food, and the production of copra and cocoa as cash crops by family-sized units and small cooperative work groups. Vanilla and tropical spice crops have made a halting progress, and remain very minor sources of income for villagers.</p><br>
<p>The urban sector at Buka Passage includes the Bougainville representatives of major New Guinean business, such as Bank South Pacific, CPL (which purchases cash crops), Agmark, presence of the Autonomous Bougainville Government, which is based in Kubu, near Buka Passage. There are a number of small businesses in the island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Buka is a relatively flat island some 52 km long in the north-south axis, and up to 18 km wide in the west-east axis. It is separated from Bougainville by the Buka Passage, a narrow, deep and very fast flowing tidal channel about 200 m wide. The east coast is the windward side for most of the year, and is characterised by a coastal cliff that rises close to the ocean, leaving only a narrow and often rocky beach. A coral reef rings the entire island, it is narrow on the east coast, which is battered by oceanic winds and large waves; it spreads out into lagoons on the west coast.</p><br>
<p>Along the western coast there is a small mountain range, named the Richard Parkinson Range, after the German planter and explorer. The highest peak in this range is Mt. Bei, which is 458 m in elevation. The range runs between Buka and Carola Harbour. The few larger rivers on the island flow from headwaters in the range&#39;s interior. The largest is the Gagan River.</p><br>
<p>The rest of the island is a large raised limestone formation. It rises 10 m inland, and 70 - along the cliffs at the eastern coast. The cliffs correspond to the reef of an ancient lagoon.</p><br>
<p>The limestone morphology means that there is very little surface water available throughout most of the island. This poses a problem for the islands residents, especially during the dry season, when water is collected by villagers from kukubui&#39; springs along the foot of the cliffs.</p><br>
<h3>Subdivisions</h3><br>
<p>The island is divided into five Autonomous Bougainville Government electorates:</p><br>
<p>Haku</p><br>
<p>Peit (covering the West Coast and Solos)</p><br>
<p>Halia (from Tohatsi to Hahalis),</p><br>
<p>Hagogohe (from Salasa to Sing)</p><br>
<p>Tsitalato (from Lonahan to Buka Passage).</p><br>
<p>Each of these electorates has its own local government, known as Councils of Elders.</p><br>
<p>Buka is the main city on Buka Island, and the present-day capital of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville. It is located on the northern coast of Buka Passage. On old maps it is named Chinatown. The land the city occupies was formally known as Leta. There has been considerable expansion of the city in recent years, and also in nearby Kubu, location of the Autonomous Bougainville Government Parliament, and Hutjena, the location of the national high school serving Buka.</p><br>
<h2>Language and ethnic groups</h2><br>
<p>The main island of Buka is occupied by two distinct language groups, Solos and Halia. The latter is split into two dialects in Buka Island: Hanahan Halia spoken along the east coast from Buka Passage (known locally as Ieta) to Tohatsi and Haku, spoken in the north coast villages from Elutupan to Lontis. A third dialect of Halia, known as Selau is spoken in the peninsula of the same name in north Bougainville. Halia and Haku speakers easily understand each other, Selau is a more distant dialect. Solos is a distinct language within the North Bougainvillean Austronesian family, and Halia and Solos are not mutually intelligible.</p><br>
<p>On the west coast of Buka there are five small inhabited islands that have close cultural and linguistic ties to the main island of Buka. From north to south these are Pororan and nearby Hitau, Petats and Yamen and Matsungan. The language of these islands is distinct from Halia and Solos, but resembles Halia more closely than it does Solos. This language is referred to as Petats in the linguistic literature, and as West Coast in Buka.</p><br>
<p>All languages spoken by the indigenous population of Buka are part of the North Bougainvillean Austronesian group of languages. They show some affinity to the languages of Nissan Island and New Ireland and are part of the Melanesian branch of the Austronesian language family.</p><br>
<p>Contemporary Bukas often use Tok Pisin as a lingua franca between the three main language groups.</p><br>
<h2>Culture and customs</h2><br>
<p>Although separated into three or four different language groups, Buka society shows very similar traits throughout the island. Traditional Buka society conformed to a broad pattern of Melanesian horticultural organisation. Coastal (or tasi – beach) villagers, namely the Haku, Halia and West Coast speakers, planted taro, kept chickens, fished and collected shellfish. The Solos fished in Buka&#39;s rivers and traded forest products and taro with the Halia and West Coast islanders. As in most Pacific Islands, pigs were, and still are, extremely important and are seldom eaten except in the course of rituals and formal feasts. The cuscus (a type of marsupial) and various birds also supplement the diet.</p><br>
<p>Descent is matrilineal and the kinship terminology is based on a Hawaiian system. Buka kinship does not prescribe a post-marital residence, but it is generally preferred that a young couple live first with the husbands maternal relatives, and later move to the wifes land. The reason for this is that though a man will require assistance from his clansfolk, his children belong to his wife&#39;s clan.</p><br>
<h3>Chiefs</h3><br>
<p>There are inherited positions of authority for men, or chieftainships called tsunono (in Halia, or close cognates in the other languages). Women can also be chiefs, known as teitahol in Halia and tuhikauu in Haku. Traditionally, women chiefs have little overt authority, although they are extremely well respected. Women have a sacred value, rather than secular power. This is changing somewhat under the influence of NGOs and also because of women&#39;s leadership role in the peace movement during the Bougainville Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Although tsunono are in theory genealogically determined, in practice the rule is often broken. If a man is not a good speaker, or if his brother is an exceptional one, the body of tsunono can recognise him as a mausman (spokesman in Tok Pisin) or tsonpepeito (guardian in Halia).</p><br>
<p>Tsunono do not wield arbitrary power. They must represent the interests of their clan. Although the clan cannot (easily) remove a tsunono if he fails to do this, they can make it very difficult for him to mobilise the land and labour resources required to be an effective political agent.</p><br>
<p>Each sub-clan has its own clan house, known as a tsuhana. These buildings are extremely important in Buka political organisation, they are public buildings in which feasts are conducted for funerals, memorials and reconciliations. Typically, a clan or village will meet to discuss political affairs within the tsuhana. Large wooden slit-gongs are kept there, and struck to call meetings, announce funerals, deaths and other village events.</p><br>
<p>Tsuhana are associated with the body of the tsunono. Striking the post of a tsuhana in anger is said to be equivalent to assaulting the chief, and requires expiation by the sacrifice of a pig. The construction of a tsuhana is an elaborate process, though the actual building is usually quite humble. Each step in the construction requires the sacrifice of pigs, and this in turn requires mobilisation of the sub-clan and its allies. A tsuhana must be built for a tsunono chief to be regarded as powerful and authoritative.</p><br>
<p>In general, tsunono and tsuhana have authority over a sub-clan, or hamlet sized territory encompassing between five and twenty nuclear families. There is, however, a hierarchy of tsunono. Typically several tsuhana will combine under the leadership of a preeminent clan, and the leader of this clan will be called tsunono mal. This relationship is not irrevocable, and requires the assent of other tsunono. It is not possible, or at least it is not easy, for a tsunono to conquer and force other tsuhana to submit to his own.</p><br>
<p>The most powerful chief is called munihil. This chief has in theory power over clans of a moiety class in a district encompassing perhaps several villages. Such a chief will not be the largest and most powerful landholder, and will rarely have a strong genealogical claim over all the villages. Sometimes such a chief will not even be a local, but a preeminent leader drawn from a distant area. His claim to leadership is not his own, but derives from the collective agreement of the tsunono who put him forward so that he can represent them.</p><br>
<h3>Moiety classes and clans</h3><br>
<p>There are four moiety classes in all Buka societies – Nakaripa, Naboen, Nakas and Natasi. Nakaripa and Naboen are represented by totemic emblems the fowl and the eagle, while Nakas is represented by a dog and there is no consensus as to the totem of Natasi, but kotoiana, a kind of sea hawk, is often suggested, along with pue, the froth of the sea break. Nakaripa and Naboen are prestige classes and the overwhelming majority of the population will claim to belong to one or the other, even if they are genealogically members of the low prestige classes Nakas and Natasi. Traditionally, the latter carried out the prestige classes dirty work; more recently these groups have become independent (bruklus) and assert themselves as clans in their own right&#39;.</p><br>
<p>While Buka will call their moiety categories clans in Tok Pisin and English, this is not sociologically accurate and the word is actually used in two different senses, corresponding to what anthropologists would recognise as moieties and clans. (This is also a feature of the Halia language, the Halia term in question is pinaposa.) There are clans, which trace common descent and will occasionally act as corporate entities. These clans are land-holding groups, though often clans will be represented by sub-clans in different villages, or even in different linguistic areas.</p><br>
<p>By contrast, the moiety classes encompass many different clans. Moiety classification is important in conflict resolution and in the organisation of authority. For a man to succeed his mothers brother as tsunono, the opposite moiety (always either Nakaripa or Naboen) will hatsunono (make tsunono). During reconciliation ceremonies, the opposite&#39; moiety will make speeches setting conditions on the reconciling parties and will preside over sacrifices.</p><br>
<h3>Traditional religious beliefs</h3><br>
<p>Traditional Buka religious beliefs revolve around establishing good relationships between the living and the spirits of the dead as well as wild and clan spirits (known as lilihane) which are believed to inhabit every named geographical feature. (Large rocks and tiny pools of water usually have their own names, as do individual passages in the reef that rings the island). These spirits can have positive or negative attitudes to humans, or can ignore them entirely. Spirits are powerful, but not all-knowing or all powerful. (For instance, when a new person is introduced to an area where a powerful, potentially harmful spirit dwells, he or she must say "its me again, Im coming to wash just like I did yesterday!") Spirits govern success in horticulture, fighting and, of course, all things sexual.</p><br>
<p>Communication with the spirits is established by means of a sacrificial fire. Such fires are most often lit to celebrate funeral feasts for the recently dead. No fire is lit at the time of burial. The day following burial the clan most closely related to the dead will light a fire and offer some cooked fish and taro. The elders of the clan will speak to the fire, addressing the ancient ancestors and asking that they receive the new spirit and aid the living in the road ahead. Aid is needed, for now the clan must quickly acquire several pigs to kill at subsequent feasts marking five days and then ten days since burial. These feasts are more public and their successful organisation is very important for a sub-clans prestige. These feasts can be quite draining on a clans finances, since pigs are in short supply in Buka. The spirits will aid in this, and help the clan achieve cohesion.</p><br>
<p>Throughout Buka, as in most other areas within Melanesia, there is belief in sorcery, called matuna or tsora. There are two kinds of sorcery: one kind was traditionally used by the chief or more exactly by the chiefs agents, to punish transgressors in the village. This sorcery was public and the paraphernalia used to effect it was displayed at the tsuhana as a sign of high rank. Contemporary sorcery is understood to be a different kind. It is performed in secret, and usually believed to have been purchased by the alleged sorcerer outside Buka. Contemporary sorcery is itself a transgression. The most common motivation for suspicions of sorcery relate to unequal economic or political success, which causes jealousy&#39;.</p><br>
<h3>Contemporary Buka Religion</h3><br>
<p>Today the overwhelming majority of Buka are Christians, divided into a Roman Catholic majority and a large minority of United Church (Methodist), as well as many different Pentecostal and evangelical sects.</p><br>
<p>Buka Christianity, especially the Catholic denomination, has a strong tendency to assimilate indigenous and Christian beliefs. The islanders refer to this as translation. God is called Sunahan, a personal name that is sometimes glossed as he who plants villages like new shoots of taro, although this is a folk etymology. Sunahan is a creator figure from Buka tradition, and the stories concerning him are secret. In some areas, Jesus is assimilated to Bariosa, Geriana or Matanatsil, hero-figures whose stories are told throughout northern Bougainville and as far as New Ireland. Saint Mary is understood as a chiefly woman, a teitahol or tuhikau. In October, there are precessions where statues of St. Mary tour the island. The statues are followed by women carrying traditional women&#39;s worksacks, because a chiefly woman ought to travel with taro and betelnut.</p><br>
<h3>Social and religious movements</h3><br>
<p>Buka is famous in the anthropological literature as the site of a large and militant social movement called the Hahalis Welfare Society, as well as several other political and religious movements. These are often termed cargo cults by their opponents, although the utility of this term is a matter of dispute amongst anthropologists and historians of the Pacific.</p><br>
<p>The Bükk Mountains  are a section of the North Hungarian Mountains of the Inner Western Carpathians. Much of the area is included in the Bükk National Park.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Although Kékes, the highest point in Hungary, is not here but in the nearby Mátra Mountains, the average height of the Bükk Mountains–with more than 20 peaks higher than 900 m–exceeds that of Mátra. The highest point of Bükk is Istállós-kő (959 m), third highest in Hungary after Kékes and Galyatető.</p><br>
<p>There are 1115 known caves in the mountain range, including Bányász-barlang (Miner cave, 274 m) and István-lápa (254 m), the deepest caves in Hungary, the archaeologically important Szeleta cave, the Cave Bath (a main tourist attraction of Miskolc-Tapolca), the Anna Cave, and the István Cave. 52 of the caves are protected because of their fauna and microclimate.</p><br>
<p>The mountain range is also famous for its skiing facilities located around Bánkút. There are a number of maintained ski slopes equipped with several J-bar lifts. The long traditions of skiing – on the racing and recreational levels – in Bükk are fostered by local enthusiasts constituting the "Bánkút Ski Club" also in charge of operating and developing one of the largest alpine ski centres in Hungary (http://www.bankut.hu).</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Morena is one of the main systems of mountain ranges in Spain. It stretches for 450 kilometres from east to west across the south of the Iberian Peninsula, forming the southern border of the Meseta Central plateau and providing the watershed between the valleys of the Guadiana to the north and the west, and the Guadalquivir to the south.</p><br>
<p>Its highest summit is 1,332 m high Bañuela. Other notable peaks are Corral de Borros 1,312 m and Cerro de la Estrella 1,298 m.</p><br>
<p>The name Sierra Morena has a strong legendary reputation in Spanish culture and tradition, with myths about bandits (Los bandidos de Sierra Morena), a giant snake (El Saetón de Sierra Morena) and a child brought up by wolves (Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja), among others. This range is also mentioned in the famous Mexican song "Cielito Lindo" and in one of the most well known traditional Spanish songs, "Soy Minero", interpreted by Antonio Molina.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Sierra Morena stretches for 450 km in an E-W direction from the high course of the Guadalmena River in the Sierra del Relumbrar until northwestern Huelva Province, extending into Portugal. The system is the result of the uplift produced by the pressure of the northward-moving African Plate. It is made up of hard Paleozoic rocks such as granite and quartzite, as well as softer materials such as slate and gneiss.</p><br>
<p>Its name, roughly meaning dark range, is likely derived from the dark color of some of the rocks and vegetation of the ranges that make up the mountainous system. It is also mentioned as Sierra Mariánica in some documents. Formerly it was a border area, a vast wilderness with little population, and its mountain passes were important for the communication between Andalusia and Central Spain.</p><br>
<p>The peaks of the ranges are not very high on average, in fact Sierra Morena&#39;s highest point is the lowest among the mountain systems of the Iberian Peninsula. They are, however, very consistent in altitude, averaging between 600 and 1,300 m all along the system.</p><br>
<p>Since they form the southern edge of the Meseta Central, the Iberian Central Plateau, the northern Sierra Morena ranges barely rise above the level of the surrounding plateau in most places. Nevertheless, the Sierra Morena looks like a true mountain range seen from the Baetic Depression in the south with impressive southward-facing slopes and gorges.</p><br>
<p>Located within the province of Jaén, the Despeñaperros, an abrupt canyon created by the Despeñaperros River, with sheer walls over 500 metres high, is the natural path for crossing the Sierra Morena into Andalusia from the north of the peninsula.</p><br>
<h3>Ranges</h3><br>
<p>The main ranges of the Sierra Morena system from east to west are:</p><br>
<p>Sierra del Relumbrar, Cerro de Pilas Verdes (1,151 m) and Cerro de San Andrés (1,224 m)</p><br>
<p>Sierra Madrona or Sierra de Madrona, Bañuela (1,323 m), Corral de Borros (1,312 m), Abulagoso (1,301 m) and Rebollera (1,161 m)</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Almadén</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Alcudia, Navalmarcos (1,057 m) and Judío (1,107 m)</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Tentudía, also known as Sierra de Tudía, Pico de Tentudía (1,104 m)</p><br>
<p>Sierra Vieja, also known as Sierra de Feria, El Mirrio (811 m)</p><br>
<p>Sierra Grande de Hornachos, also known as Sierra de Hornachos and as Sierra Grande</p><br>
<p>Sierra del Pedroso, marking the limit of the Zújar River basin</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Maria Andrés</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Alconera</p><br>
<p>Sierra de los Pedroches</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Peñaladrones, near Bélmez, Monte Pelayo, (935 m)</p><br>
<p>Sierra Albarrana, a low range within Hornachuelos municipal term</p><br>
<p>Sierra de la Marianta, near Villanueva del Rey</p><br>
<p>Sierra de los Santos, running west of the Guadiato River</p><br>
<p>Sierra de la Aguja, near Fuente Obejuna</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Andújar, Cerro del Cabezo (686 m) with the Virgen de la Cabeza shrine on top</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Cardeña, Pico Colmena (828 m)</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Montoro, Cerro Pingajo (805 m)</p><br>
<p>Sierra de los Calderones, Cerro de la Estrella (1,298 m)</p><br>
<p>Sierra Norte de Sevilla, Cerro de La Capitana (960 m), Pico Hamapega (910 m)</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Aracena, Cerro del Castaño (962 m), Almonaster (915 m)</p><br>
<p>Picos de Aroche</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The ranges of Sierra Morena have valuable deposits of lead, silver, mercury, and other metals, some of which have been exploited since prehistoric times.</p><br>
<p>The ancient Iberians used the mountain passes as a passage between the high plateau in the north and the Guadalquivir basin.</p><br>
<p>The bleak Sierra Morena mountains were also notorious in former times for being a haunt of bandits and highwaymen. The Nuevas Poblaciones de Andalucía y Sierra Morena administrative division was started in 1767 during the reign of Charles III of Spain in order to populate the mountainous zone. As a consequence the area around La Carolina was settled with farmers that included German, Swiss and Flemish families. One of the goals of the project was to have safe stopover points for carriages in the desolate region that would be within reasonable distance from each other.</p><br>
<p>Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja was a child born in Añora who lived by himself in the middle of the Sierra Morena in the area that is now the Sierra de Cardeña y Montoro Natural Park. The film “Entre lobos” by the Cordovan director Gerardo Olivares was based on his experience.</p><br>
<h3>Spanish Civil War</h3><br>
<p>The Sierra Morena was the scenario of many battles and skirmishes throughout the Spanish Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The battle of Cerro Muriano, part of the August 1936 Córdoba offensive in the region, is famous owing to the picture of a "falling militiaman" taken by Robert Capa, a picture that sought to represent the tragic fate of the Spanish Republic.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Valsequillo (also known as Battle of Peñarroya), involving the Extremaduran Army took place further west in the area of the range at the Extremaduran front line between 5 January and 4 February 1939 towards the end of the conflict.</p><br>
<h2>In literature</h2><br>
<p>The Sierra Morena appears in the novel Don Quixote. When Sancho Panza suggests the mountains as a refuge from the Holy Brotherhood after Don Quixote frees a group of galley slaves, the two escape into the Sierra Morena. In the mountains, Quixote contemplates the burdens of knighthood. In Voltaire&#39;s satire Candide, the main characters stop there on their escape from Lisbon (chapter 9-10).</p><br>
<p>Nikolay Karamzin&#39;s 1793 prose "Sierra-Morena", where the Russian writer tells of a love story between the author and young Elvira, is also dedicated to the mountain range.</p><br>
<p>The forbidding landscape of Sierra Morena was also the setting for the majority of the eerie and supernatural goings-on in Jan Potocki&#39;s "The Manuscript Found in Saragossa" written in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Sierra Morena is one of the last habitats of the endangered Iberian lynx.</p><br>
<p>Other charismatic animals of the region include the Iberian wolf, Wild boar, Red deer, the Spanish imperial eagle and the Golden eagle. Among the amphibians, wells and ponds in many areas of the range provide a habitat for the near-threatened Iberian ribbed newt.</p><br>
<p>A National Geographic Channel documentary film featuring an overview of some of the region&#39;s wildlife was produced in 2015.</p><br>
<h3>Protected areas</h3><br>
<p>Certain sectors of Sierra Morena&#39;s are protected areas, including natural parks:</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Aracena and Picos de Aroche Natural Park</p><br>
<p>Sierra Norte de Sevilla Natural Park</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Hornachuelos Natural Park</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Cardeña and Montoro Natural Park</p><br>
<p>Sierra de Andújar Natural Park</p><br>
<p>Despeñaperros Natural Park</p><br>
<p>Peñas de Aroche Natural Site</p><br>
<p>Sierra Pelada and Rivera del Aserrador Natural Site</p><br>
<p>Cascada de la Cimbarra Natural Site</p><br>
<h2>Main ranges and features</h2><br>
<p>The Tissino River is a small watercourse of eastern Umbria in Italy. Its source is a few hundred metres S of Usigni, at an approximate altitude of 1000 m , and it flows for about 20 km, almost due north, past the towns of Usigni, Poggiodomo, Roccatamburo and Mucciafora, high above the river in the massif of Mounts Coscerno and Bacugno on its west bank, then past Rocchetta and Ponte also high above it on the ridge of Monte Maggio on its east bank; and flows into the Nera River at about 380 m  altitude, at about 1 km SW of Cerreto Borgo.</p><br>
<p>The Tissino is not to be confused with the Tescino, about a dozen km away, that flows into the Nera at Terni; nor with the Ticino, a large river of northern Italy.</p><br>
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<p>Denver Public Library is the public library system of the City and County of Denver, Colorado. The system includes the Denver Central Library, located in the Golden Triangle District of Downtown Denver, as well as 25 branch locations and two bookmobiles. The library’s collection totals more than 2 million items, including books, reference materials, movies, music, and photographs. Of that total, more than 347,000 items are in specific collections including the Western History and Genealogy Department, Blair-Caldwell African American Research Library, and Reference Department holdings.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The library evolved from the 1878 donation of books to the citys board of education, which were then maintained in a wing of East Denver High School. John Cotton Dana was named chief librarian and the "Denver Public Library" was officially established in 1889. The library moved into its own building in 1910, a Greek revival design funded by philanthropist Andrew Carnegie that was located in Civic Center Park downtown. Between 1913 and 1920, Carnegie also underwrote construction of the librarys first eight branches. Previously the city relied on traveling trunks of books.</p><br>
<h3>Central Library</h3><br>
<p>In the 1950s the city commissioned the architectural firm Fisher & Fisher and designer Burnham Hoyt to build a new Central Library to be located on Broadway and West 14th Avenue. The property had previously been an auto dealership for the Ford Model T, Model A, and Model B before being condemned by the City in 1953. The Fisher/Hoyt Central Library in the city&#39;s Golden Triangle opened in 1955 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1990. In the 1990s Denver voters approved a $91.6 million bond issue to add onto the Fisher/Hoyt building; the new 540,000 ft&sup2; structure, designed by architect Michael Graves and the Denver firm of Klipp Colussy Jenks DuBois, opened in 1995.</p><br>
<h2>Collections</h2><br>
<p>The Denver Public Library has a large Western History collection, which began under the direction of City Librarian Malcom G. Wyer and includes 600,000 photographs, 3,700 manuscript archives, 200,000 cataloged books, pamphlets, atlases, maps, and microfilm titles as well as a collection of Western fine art and prints. The quality of its collection of oil paintings rivals that of the Denver Art Museum next door. The library&#39;s collection includes western landscape paintings by Albert Bierstadt, Frederic Remington, Charles Marion Russell, Thomas Moran and Otto Kuhler, as well as a portrait of Colorado historian and Denver Post writer Caroline Bancroft.</p><br>
<p>The Western History Department holds the Otto Perry collection of railroad photographs, numbering 20,000 negatives from all parts of North America made available for viewing on the Internet.</p><br>
<p>The Western History and Genealogy departments merged in 1995 and are located on the fifth floor. The Genealogy department includes 60,000 books, 75,000 pieces of microform, and hundreds of magazine and newsletter titles, charts, clippings, atlases and manuscripts.</p><br>
<p>The Blair-Caldwell African American Research Library serves as an educational and cultural resource focusing on the history, literature, art, music, religion, and politics of African Americans in Colorado and throughout the Rocky Mountain West. The Library opened in 2003 and houses a full service branch library, research archives and the Western Legacies Museum, an exhibition space that spans more than 7,000 ft&sup2; and includes an African American Leadership Gallery, a replica of the Office of Denver Mayor Wellington E. Webb, and rotating exhibits which highlight historical periods, notable individuals and local Denver history.</p><br>
<h2>Branch libraries</h2><br>
<p>Central Library</p><br>
<p>Children&#39;s Library</p><br>
<p>Western History & Genealogy Library</p><br>
<p>Athmar Park Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Ross-Barnum Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Bear Valley Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Blair-Caldwell African American Research Library</p><br>
<p>Ross-Broadway Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Byers Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Ross-Cherry Creek Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Decker Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Eugene Field Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Ford-Warren Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Green Valley Ranch Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Hadley Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Hampden Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Montbello Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Park Hill Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Pauline Robinson Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Sam Gary Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Schlessman Family Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Smiley Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Ross-University Hills Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Valdez-Perry Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Virginia Village Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Westwood Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Woodbury Branch Library</p><br>
<p>Jennings Randolph Lake is a reservoir of 952 acre located on the North Branch Potomac River in Garrett County, Maryland and Mineral County, West Virginia. It is approximately eight miles upstream of Bloomington, Maryland, and approximately five miles north of Elk Garden, West Virginia.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and management</h2><br>
<p>The lake was constructed by the USA Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), as authorized by the Flood Control Act of October 23, 1962 (Public Law 87-874) and is described in House Document No. 469, 87th United States Congress, second session. Originally named “Bloomington Dam”, it was renamed Jennings Randolph Lake in 1987 to honor the US Senator from West Virginia who was instrumental in this and many other water resource projects across the nation.Construction of the lake was completed in 1981, and resulted in the flooding of the community of Shaw, West Virginia and the realignment of West Virginia Route 46. The dam, rolled earth and rock fill, is 296 feet high, has a crest length of 2,130 feet and contains 10 million cubic yards of material. Jennings Randolph Lake strives to provide water quality improvements and reduce flood damages downstream of the lake, provide a source of water supply for downstream municipalities and industries, and provide the public with recreation opportunities. With a full conservation pool, the lake, controls a drainage area of 263 square miles, and is about 5.5 miles long and has a surface area of 952 acres.The lake, which serves as an emergency reservoir for the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, is managed by the Corps of Engineers. Coordination of the lake&#39;s use for water supply purposes is managed by the Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin (ICPRB).</p><br>
<p>The impoundment also collects acid mine drainage from coal mines located upstream, which improves the water quality of the river downstream.</p><br>
<h2>Planned hydroelectric facility</h2><br>
<p>In 2008 Fairlawn Hydroelectric Company filed a proposal with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) to construct a hydroelectric facility at the dam. FERC approved a license for a 14 MW facility on April 30, 2012. In 2016, Fairlawn Hydroelectric reported that it had not yet obtained construction permits from USACE, and it obtained an extension of time from FERC to begin and complete the project.</p><br>
<h2>Recreational facilities</h2><br>
<p>Howell Run Picnic Area</p><br>
<p>Howell Run Boat Launch</p><br>
<p>Robert W. Craig Campground</p><br>
<p>Shaw Beach</p><br>
<p>West Virginia Overlook</p><br>
<p>Maryland Overlook</p><br>
<p>Maryland Boat Launch</p><br>
